Storm over the schoolhouse: Exploring popular influences upon the American curriculum, 1890-1941

Teachers College Record

Volumn 100, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 602-626

  Zimmerman, Jonathan ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033421195     PISSN: 01614681     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/0161-4681.00005     Document Type: Article

References (172)

1. Arthur H. Jennings to Bessie Pierce, August 2, 1923; Jennings to Pierce, August 12, 1923, both in folder 1, box 15, Bessie Louise Pierce Papers [hereafter "Pierce Papers"], Joseph Regenstein Library, University of Chicago, Chicago. On the New York text episode, see Bethany Andreasen, "Treason or Truth: The New York Textbook Controversy, 1920-23," New York History 66 (October 1985): 397-419.
2. Bessie Louise Pierce, Public Opinion and The Teaching of History in the United States (New York: Knopf, 1926), p. 206.
3. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
4. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
5. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
6. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
7. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
8. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
9. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
10. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
11. See esp. Pierce, Public Opinion; idem, Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training of Youth (New York: Scribner's, 1933); Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? An Analysis of Restraints Upon the Freedom of Teaching (New York: Scribner's, 1936); Robert Bruce Raup, Education and Organized Interests in America (New York: Putnam's, 1936); J. Flint Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures on the Public, Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932); William Gellerman, The American Legion as Educator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938). Numerous doctoral and master's theses also probed lay influence upon the curriculum during this era. See, e.g., Conrad Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools by Outside Organizations" (Master's thesis, University of Nebraska, 1927); Edith A. Longbon, "Outside Pressure on the Teaching of History in the State of Ohio," (Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1930); Samuel J. McLaughlin, "The Educational Policies and Activities of the American Federation of Labor during the Present Century" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1936); Thomas Francis Ferry, "Organization Activities in the Washington, DC, Public Schools" (Master's thesis, George Washington University, 1937).
12. See, e.g., Beale, Are American Teacher's Free? p. 315; Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. x; Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 12; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 158. Raup and Waller were charter members of the "social reconstructionists" who clustered at Columbia University's Teachers College during the 1930s, arguing that schools should promote social justice rather than simply deferring to what Raup called the public's "confusion of tongues." Beale and Pierce wrote for the American Historical Association's Commission on the Social Studies, another Depression-era hotbed of reconstructionist thought. Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 220; David Tyack, Robert Lowe, and Elisabeth Hansot, Public Schools in Hard Times: The Great Depression and Recent Years (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 60-61.
13. See, e.g., Beale, Are American Teacher's Free? p. 315; Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. x; Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 12; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 158. Raup and Waller were charter members of the "social reconstructionists" who clustered at Columbia University's Teachers College during the 1930s, arguing that schools should promote social justice rather than simply deferring to what Raup called the public's "confusion of tongues." Beale and Pierce wrote for the American Historical Association's Commission on the Social Studies, another Depression-era hotbed of reconstructionist thought. Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 220; David Tyack, Robert Lowe, and Elisabeth Hansot, Public Schools in Hard Times: The Great Depression and Recent Years (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 60-61.
14. See, e.g., Beale, Are American Teacher's Free? p. 315; Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. x; Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 12; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 158. Raup and Waller were charter members of the "social reconstructionists" who clustered at Columbia University's Teachers College during the 1930s, arguing that schools should promote social justice rather than simply deferring to what Raup called the public's "confusion of tongues." Beale and Pierce wrote for the American Historical Association's Commission on the Social Studies, another Depression-era hotbed of reconstructionist thought. Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 220; David Tyack, Robert Lowe, and Elisabeth Hansot, Public Schools in Hard Times: The Great Depression and Recent Years (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 60-61.
15. See, e.g., Beale, Are American Teacher's Free? p. 315; Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. x; Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 12; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 158. Raup and Waller were charter members of the "social reconstructionists" who clustered at Columbia University's Teachers College during the 1930s, arguing that schools should promote social justice rather than simply deferring to what Raup called the public's "confusion of tongues." Beale and Pierce wrote for the American Historical Association's Commission on the Social Studies, another Depression-era hotbed of reconstructionist thought. Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 220; David Tyack, Robert Lowe, and Elisabeth Hansot, Public Schools in Hard Times: The Great Depression and Recent Years (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 60-61.
16. See, e.g., Beale, Are American Teacher's Free? p. 315; Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. x; Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 12; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 158. Raup and Waller were charter members of the "social reconstructionists" who clustered at Columbia University's Teachers College during the 1930s, arguing that schools should promote social justice rather than simply deferring to what Raup called the public's "confusion of tongues." Beale and Pierce wrote for the American Historical Association's Commission on the Social Studies, another Depression-era hotbed of reconstructionist thought. Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 220; David Tyack, Robert Lowe, and Elisabeth Hansot, Public Schools in Hard Times: The Great Depression and Recent Years (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 60-61.
17. See, e.g., Beale, Are American Teacher's Free? p. 315; Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. x; Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 12; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 158. Raup and Waller were charter members of the "social reconstructionists" who clustered at Columbia University's Teachers College during the 1930s, arguing that schools should promote social justice rather than simply deferring to what Raup called the public's "confusion of tongues." Beale and Pierce wrote for the American Historical Association's Commission on the Social Studies, another Depression-era hotbed of reconstructionist thought. Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 220; David Tyack, Robert Lowe, and Elisabeth Hansot, Public Schools in Hard Times: The Great Depression and Recent Years (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 60-61.
18. Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools," pp. 36-37. See also Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 39; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 160.
19. Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools," pp. 36-37. See also Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 39; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 160.
20. Jacobson, "Exploitation of the Public Schools," pp. 36-37. See also Waller, Outside Demands and Pressures, p. 39; Raup, Education and Organized Interests, p. 160.
21. Jeffrey Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), ch. 3; Tyack et al. Public Schools in Hard Times, ch. 2; Paul E. Peterson, The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), ch. 3; William J. Reese, Power and the Promise of School Reform: Grassroots Movements during the Progressive Era (Boston: Routledge, 1986), ch. 3; Julia Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools: Chicago, 1900-1950 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982), ch. 3.
22. Jeffrey Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), ch. 3; Tyack et al. Public Schools in Hard Times, ch. 2; Paul E. Peterson, The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), ch. 3; William J. Reese, Power and the Promise of School Reform: Grassroots Movements during the Progressive Era (Boston: Routledge, 1986), ch. 3; Julia Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools: Chicago, 1900-1950 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982), ch. 3.
23. Jeffrey Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), ch. 3; Tyack et al. Public Schools in Hard Times, ch. 2; Paul E. Peterson, The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), ch. 3; William J. Reese, Power and the Promise of School Reform: Grassroots Movements during the Progressive Era (Boston: Routledge, 1986), ch. 3; Julia Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools: Chicago, 1900-1950 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982), ch. 3.
24. Jeffrey Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), ch. 3; Tyack et al. Public Schools in Hard Times, ch. 2; Paul E. Peterson, The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), ch. 3; William J. Reese, Power and the Promise of School Reform: Grassroots Movements during the Progressive Era (Boston: Routledge, 1986), ch. 3; Julia Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools: Chicago, 1900-1950 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982), ch. 3.
25. Jeffrey Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), ch. 3; Tyack et al. Public Schools in Hard Times, ch. 2; Paul E. Peterson, The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), ch. 3; William J. Reese, Power and the Promise of School Reform: Grassroots Movements during the Progressive Era (Boston: Routledge, 1986), ch. 3; Julia Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools: Chicago, 1900-1950 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982), ch. 3.
26. David Tyack, Thomas James, and Aaron Benavot, eds., Law and the Shaping of Public Education, 1785-1954 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), ch. 6; Jonathan Zimmerman, "'The Queen of the Lobby': Mary Hunt, Scientific Temperance, and the Dilemma of Democratic Education in America, 1879-1906," History of Education Quarterly 32 (1992), 1-30.
27. David Tyack, Thomas James, and Aaron Benavot, eds., Law and the Shaping of Public Education, 1785-1954 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), ch. 6; Jonathan Zimmerman, "'The Queen of the Lobby': Mary Hunt, Scientific Temperance, and the Dilemma of Democratic Education in America, 1879-1906," History of Education Quarterly 32 (1992), 1-30.
28. Mind and Body 33 (April 1926), 43.
29. See, e.g., Edward A. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), esp. ch. 12; Arthur G. Powell, Eleanor Farrar, and David K. Cohen, The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), pp. 234-79; David F. Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838-1939 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), ch. 6; David L. Angus and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Equality, Curriculum, and the Decline of the Academic Ideal: Detroit, 1930-1968," History of Education Quarterly 33 (Summer 1993): 177-207; David Tyack and Larry Cuban, Tinkering towards Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 50-52. Academic requirements and enrollments declined relative to nonacademic ones, but, not in absolute terms. For a summary and critique of this trend, see David Angus and Jeffrey Mirel, "Rhetoric and Reality: The High School Curriculum," in Learning from the Past: What History Teaches Us about School Reform, ed. Diane Ravitch and Maris A. Vinovskis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 295-328.
30. See, e.g., Edward A. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), esp. ch. 12; Arthur G. Powell, Eleanor Farrar, and David K. Cohen, The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), pp. 234-79; David F. Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838-1939 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), ch. 6; David L. Angus and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Equality, Curriculum, and the Decline of the Academic Ideal: Detroit, 1930-1968," History of Education Quarterly 33 (Summer 1993): 177-207; David Tyack and Larry Cuban, Tinkering towards Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 50-52. Academic requirements and enrollments declined relative to nonacademic ones, but, not in absolute terms. For a summary and critique of this trend, see David Angus and Jeffrey Mirel, "Rhetoric and Reality: The High School Curriculum," in Learning from the Past: What History Teaches Us about School Reform, ed. Diane Ravitch and Maris A. Vinovskis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 295-328.
31. See, e.g., Edward A. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), esp. ch. 12; Arthur G. Powell, Eleanor Farrar, and David K. Cohen, The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), pp. 234-79; David F. Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838-1939 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), ch. 6; David L. Angus and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Equality, Curriculum, and the Decline of the Academic Ideal: Detroit, 1930-1968," History of Education Quarterly 33 (Summer 1993): 177-207; David Tyack and Larry Cuban, Tinkering towards Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 50-52. Academic requirements and enrollments declined relative to nonacademic ones, but, not in absolute terms. For a summary and critique of this trend, see David Angus and Jeffrey Mirel, "Rhetoric and Reality: The High School Curriculum," in Learning from the Past: What History Teaches Us about School Reform, ed. Diane Ravitch and Maris A. Vinovskis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 295-328.
32. See, e.g., Edward A. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), esp. ch. 12; Arthur G. Powell, Eleanor Farrar, and David K. Cohen, The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), pp. 234-79; David F. Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838-1939 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), ch. 6; David L. Angus and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Equality, Curriculum, and the Decline of the Academic Ideal: Detroit, 1930-1968," History of Education Quarterly 33 (Summer 1993): 177-207; David Tyack and Larry Cuban, Tinkering towards Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 50-52. Academic requirements and enrollments declined relative to nonacademic ones, but, not in absolute terms. For a summary and critique of this trend, see David Angus and Jeffrey Mirel, "Rhetoric and Reality: The High School Curriculum," in Learning from the Past: What History Teaches Us about School Reform, ed. Diane Ravitch and Maris A. Vinovskis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 295-328.
33. See, e.g., Edward A. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), esp. ch. 12; Arthur G. Powell, Eleanor Farrar, and David K. Cohen, The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), pp. 234-79; David F. Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838-1939 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), ch. 6; David L. Angus and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Equality, Curriculum, and the Decline of the Academic Ideal: Detroit, 1930-1968," History of Education Quarterly 33 (Summer 1993): 177-207; David Tyack and Larry Cuban, Tinkering towards Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 50-52. Academic requirements and enrollments declined relative to nonacademic ones, but, not in absolute terms. For a summary and critique of this trend, see David Angus and Jeffrey Mirel, "Rhetoric and Reality: The High School Curriculum," in Learning from the Past: What History Teaches Us about School Reform, ed. Diane Ravitch and Maris A. Vinovskis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 295-328.
34. See, e.g., Edward A. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), esp. ch. 12; Arthur G. Powell, Eleanor Farrar, and David K. Cohen, The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), pp. 234-79; David F. Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838-1939 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), ch. 6; David L. Angus and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Equality, Curriculum, and the Decline of the Academic Ideal: Detroit, 1930-1968," History of Education Quarterly 33 (Summer 1993): 177-207; David Tyack and Larry Cuban, Tinkering towards Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 50-52. Academic requirements and enrollments declined relative to nonacademic ones, but, not in absolute terms. For a summary and critique of this trend, see David Angus and Jeffrey Mirel, "Rhetoric and Reality: The High School Curriculum," in Learning from the Past: What History Teaches Us about School Reform, ed. Diane Ravitch and Maris A. Vinovskis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 295-328.
35. Lucia Ames Mead, Teaching Patriotism and Justice (Washington, DC: American Peace Society, 1916), p. 3, reel 41.32, National Council for the Prevention of War Papers [hereafter "NCPW Papers"], Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania [hereafter "SCPC"]; Henry C. Smith, "Freemasonry and the Public Schools - A Grand Master's Symposium," The Builder 8 (August 1922): 233, quoted in Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. 98.
36. Lucia Ames Mead, Teaching Patriotism and Justice (Washington, DC: American Peace Society, 1916), p. 3, reel 41.32, National Council for the Prevention of War Papers [hereafter "NCPW Papers"], Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania [hereafter "SCPC"]; Henry C. Smith, "Freemasonry and the Public Schools - A Grand Master's Symposium," The Builder 8 (August 1922): 233, quoted in Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. 98.
37. Lucia Ames Mead, Teaching Patriotism and Justice (Washington, DC: American Peace Society, 1916), p. 3, reel 41.32, National Council for the Prevention of War Papers [hereafter "NCPW Papers"], Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania [hereafter "SCPC"]; Henry C. Smith, "Freemasonry and the Public Schools - A Grand Master's Symposium," The Builder 8 (August 1922): 233, quoted in Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, p. 98.
38. John J. Tigert, "A Practical Program of Education for the Promotion of International Goodwill" (typescript, June 25, 1928), reel 41.32, NCPW Papers; "Proceedings of the Meeting of National Executive Committee of the American Legion" (typescript, June 15-16, 1925), p. 416, Americanism Minutes, American Legion National Headquarters, Indianapolis, Indiana [hereafter "ALNH"].
39. Jesse Knowlton Flanders, Legislative Control of the Elementary Curriculum (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925), pp. 29-33; Cecelia Elizabeth O'Leary, "'Blood Brotherhood': The Racialization of Patriotism, 1865-1918," in Bonds of Affection: Americans Define Their Patriotism, ed. John Bodnar (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 60; Hannah J. Bailey, "Woman's Place in the Peace Reform" (typescript, 1901), box 1, Woman's Christian Temperance Union Collection, SCPC.
40. Jesse Knowlton Flanders, Legislative Control of the Elementary Curriculum (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925), pp. 29-33; Cecelia Elizabeth O'Leary, "'Blood Brotherhood': The Racialization of Patriotism, 1865-1918," in Bonds of Affection: Americans Define Their Patriotism, ed. John Bodnar (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 60; Hannah J. Bailey, "Woman's Place in the Peace Reform" (typescript, 1901), box 1, Woman's Christian Temperance Union Collection, SCPC.
41. Jesse Knowlton Flanders, Legislative Control of the Elementary Curriculum (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925), pp. 29-33; Cecelia Elizabeth O'Leary, "'Blood Brotherhood': The Racialization of Patriotism, 1865-1918," in Bonds of Affection: Americans Define Their Patriotism, ed. John Bodnar (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 60; Hannah J. Bailey, "Woman's Place in the Peace Reform" (typescript, 1901), box 1, Woman's Christian Temperance Union Collection, SCPC.
42. Bessie L. Pierce, "Textbooks in History for Senior High Schools," University of Iowa Service Bulletin 10 (July 31, 1926): 1; Pierce to Bruce Bliven, June 4, 1923, folder 5, box 8; Pierce to Edwin M. Hopkins, December 15, 1924, folder 1, box 11, both in Pierce Papers. There is no full historical examination of the anti-English movement in the 1920s. For brief accounts, see Andreasen, "Treason or Truth"; Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 485-86; and Christopher J. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), ch. 11.
43. Bessie L. Pierce, "Textbooks in History for Senior High Schools," University of Iowa Service Bulletin 10 (July 31, 1926): 1; Pierce to Bruce Bliven, June 4, 1923, folder 5, box 8; Pierce to Edwin M. Hopkins, December 15, 1924, folder 1, box 11, both in Pierce Papers. There is no full historical examination of the anti-English movement in the 1920s. For brief accounts, see Andreasen, "Treason or Truth"; Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 485-86; and Christopher J. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), ch. 11.
44. Bessie L. Pierce, "Textbooks in History for Senior High Schools," University of Iowa Service Bulletin 10 (July 31, 1926): 1; Pierce to Bruce Bliven, June 4, 1923, folder 5, box 8; Pierce to Edwin M. Hopkins, December 15, 1924, folder 1, box 11, both in Pierce Papers. There is no full historical examination of the anti-English movement in the 1920s. For brief accounts, see Andreasen, "Treason or Truth"; Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 485-86; and Christopher J. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), ch. 11.
45. Bessie L. Pierce, "Textbooks in History for Senior High Schools," University of Iowa Service Bulletin 10 (July 31, 1926): 1; Pierce to Bruce Bliven, June 4, 1923, folder 5, box 8; Pierce to Edwin M. Hopkins, December 15, 1924, folder 1, box 11, both in Pierce Papers. There is no full historical examination of the anti-English movement in the 1920s. For brief accounts, see Andreasen, "Treason or Truth"; Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 485-86; and Christopher J. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), ch. 11.
46. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism, pp. 278-79; Edward F. McSweeney to Luke E. Hart, May 5, 1922, "Correspondence. 1922" folder; Edward F. McSweeney, "Address to Supreme Convention" (typescript, August 2, 1922), p. 8, "August 1922" folder, both in Historical Commission files, Knights of Columbus Archives, New Haven, Connecticut [hereafter "KCA"]. For a nuanced discussion of the "New History," see Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The 'Objectivity Question' and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), ch. 4.
47. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism, pp. 278-79; Edward F. McSweeney to Luke E. Hart, May 5, 1922, "Correspondence. 1922" folder; Edward F. McSweeney, "Address to Supreme Convention" (typescript, August 2, 1922), p. 8, "August 1922" folder, both in Historical Commission files, Knights of Columbus Archives, New Haven, Connecticut [hereafter "KCA"]. For a nuanced discussion of the "New History," see Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The 'Objectivity Question' and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), ch. 4.
48. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism, pp. 278-79; Edward F. McSweeney to Luke E. Hart, May 5, 1922, "Correspondence. 1922" folder; Edward F. McSweeney, "Address to Supreme Convention" (typescript, August 2, 1922), p. 8, "August 1922" folder, both in Historical Commission files, Knights of Columbus Archives, New Haven, Connecticut [hereafter "KCA"]. For a nuanced discussion of the "New History," see Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The 'Objectivity Question' and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), ch. 4.
49. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism, pp. 278-79; Edward F. McSweeney to Luke E. Hart, May 5, 1922, "Correspondence. 1922" folder; Edward F. McSweeney, "Address to Supreme Convention" (typescript, August 2, 1922), p. 8, "August 1922" folder, both in Historical Commission files, Knights of Columbus Archives, New Haven, Connecticut [hereafter "KCA"]. For a nuanced discussion of the "New History," see Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The 'Objectivity Question' and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), ch. 4.
50. Americans, Wake Up! (n.p., n.d. [1921?], p. 1, Pamphlets Collection; Edward F. McSweeney, The Attack on America (n.p., n.d. [1921?]), p. 11, Pamphlets Collection; McSweeney to Burton J. Hendrick, November 6, 1923, "Correspondence. November-December 1923" folder; "Memorandum to the Supreme Board of the Knights of Columbus from the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission," October 7, 1923, "Subcommittee of Supreme Board on Historical Commission Report. January 1923" folder, all in Historical Commission files, KCA. See also "Report of the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission to the Supreme Directors," October 8, 1922, "Report. October 1922" folder, Historical Commission files, KCA. McSweeney's theory of history echoed W. E. B. DuBois' famous notion of "double-consciousness," premised on the idea that blacks - like the other six races DuBois identified - maintained a distinctive character and temperament. When the Knights decided to publish a series of historical monographs about the "racial contributions" of different ethnic groups to America, in fact, McSweeney chose DuBois to author the book about African Americans. It was published in 1924 as The Gift of Black Folk, a gloss on DuBois' classic Souls of Black Folk. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism, pp. 285-86; McSweeney to William J. McGinley, August 30, 1923, "Correspondence. April-December 1923" folder, Historical Commission files, KCA; W. E. B. DuBois, The Gift of Black Folk: Negroes in the Making of America (Boston: Stratford, 1924).
51. Americans, Wake Up! (n.p., n.d. [1921?], p. 1, Pamphlets Collection; Edward F. McSweeney, The Attack on America (n.p., n.d. [1921?]), p. 11, Pamphlets Collection; McSweeney to Burton J. Hendrick, November 6, 1923, "Correspondence. November-December 1923" folder; "Memorandum to the Supreme Board of the Knights of Columbus from the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission," October 7, 1923, "Subcommittee of Supreme Board on Historical Commission Report. January 1923" folder, all in Historical Commission files, KCA. See also "Report of the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission to the Supreme Directors," October 8, 1922, "Report. October 1922" folder, Historical Commission files, KCA. McSweeney's theory of history echoed W. E. B. DuBois' famous notion of "double-consciousness," premised on the idea that blacks - like the other six races DuBois identified - maintained a distinctive character and temperament. When the Knights decided to publish a series of historical monographs about the "racial contributions" of different ethnic groups to America, in fact, McSweeney chose DuBois to author the book about African Americans. It was published in 1924 as The Gift of Black Folk, a gloss on DuBois' classic Souls of Black Folk. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism, pp. 285-86; McSweeney to William J. McGinley, August 30, 1923, "Correspondence. April-December 1923" folder, Historical Commission files, KCA; W. E. B. DuBois, The Gift of Black Folk: Negroes in the Making of America (Boston: Stratford, 1924).
52. Americans, Wake Up! (n.p., n.d. [1921?], p. 1, Pamphlets Collection; Edward F. McSweeney, The Attack on America (n.p., n.d. [1921?]), p. 11, Pamphlets Collection; McSweeney to Burton J. Hendrick, November 6, 1923, "Correspondence. November-December 1923" folder; "Memorandum to the Supreme Board of the Knights of Columbus from the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission," October 7, 1923, "Subcommittee of Supreme Board on Historical Commission Report. January 1923" folder, all in Historical Commission files, KCA. See also "Report of the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission to the Supreme Directors," October 8, 1922, "Report. October 1922" folder, Historical Commission files, KCA. McSweeney's theory of history echoed W. E. B. DuBois' famous notion of "double-consciousness," premised on the idea that blacks - like the other six races DuBois identified - maintained a distinctive character and temperament. When the Knights decided to publish a series of historical monographs about the "racial contributions" of different ethnic groups to America, in fact, McSweeney chose DuBois to author the book about African Americans. It was published in 1924 as The Gift of Black Folk, a gloss on DuBois' classic Souls of Black Folk. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism, pp. 285-86; McSweeney to William J. McGinley, August 30, 1923, "Correspondence. April-December 1923" folder, Historical Commission files, KCA; W. E. B. DuBois, The Gift of Black Folk: Negroes in the Making of America (Boston: Stratford, 1924).
53. Americans, Wake Up! (n.p., n.d. [1921?], p. 1, Pamphlets Collection; Edward F. McSweeney, The Attack on America (n.p., n.d. [1921?]), p. 11, Pamphlets Collection; McSweeney to Burton J. Hendrick, November 6, 1923, "Correspondence. November-December 1923" folder; "Memorandum to the Supreme Board of the Knights of Columbus from the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission," October 7, 1923, "Subcommittee of Supreme Board on Historical Commission Report. January 1923" folder, all in Historical Commission files, KCA. See also "Report of the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission to the Supreme Directors," October 8, 1922, "Report. October 1922" folder, Historical Commission files, KCA. McSweeney's theory of history echoed W. E. B. DuBois' famous notion of "double-consciousness," premised on the idea that blacks - like the other six races DuBois identified - maintained a distinctive character and temperament. When the Knights decided to publish a series of historical monographs about the "racial contributions" of different ethnic groups to America, in fact, McSweeney chose DuBois to author the book about African Americans. It was published in 1924 as The Gift of Black Folk, a gloss on DuBois' classic Souls of Black Folk. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism, pp. 285-86; McSweeney to William J. McGinley, August 30, 1923, "Correspondence. April-December 1923" folder, Historical Commission files, KCA; W. E. B. DuBois, The Gift of Black Folk: Negroes in the Making of America (Boston: Stratford, 1924).
54. Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary. United States Senate Sixty-Fifth Congress, Second Session on S. 3529. A Bill to Repeal the Act Entitled, "An Act to Incorporate the National German-American Alliance, Approved February 25, 1907" (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), pp. 645-46; Charles H. Wesley, "The Reconstruction of History," Negro History Week Beginning February 9, 1936 (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1936), pp. 8-9, folder 2, box 370, Claude A. Barnett Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Chicago; Charles H. Wesley, Negro History in the School Curriculum (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1925), p. 12.
55. Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary. United States Senate Sixty-Fifth Congress, Second Session on S. 3529. A Bill to Repeal the Act Entitled, "An Act to Incorporate the National German-American Alliance, Approved February 25, 1907" (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), pp. 645-46; Charles H. Wesley, "The Reconstruction of History," Negro History Week Beginning February 9, 1936 (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1936), pp. 8-9, folder 2, box 370, Claude A. Barnett Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Chicago; Charles H. Wesley, Negro History in the School Curriculum (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1925), p. 12.
56. Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary. United States Senate Sixty-Fifth Congress, Second Session on S. 3529. A Bill to Repeal the Act Entitled, "An Act to Incorporate the National German-American Alliance, Approved February 25, 1907" (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), pp. 645-46; Charles H. Wesley, "The Reconstruction of History," Negro History Week Beginning February 9, 1936 (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1936), pp. 8-9, folder 2, box 370, Claude A. Barnett Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Chicago; Charles H. Wesley, Negro History in the School Curriculum (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1925), p. 12.
57. Pierce, Public Opinion, p. 281; untitled speech by William Thompson (typescript, March 31, 1927), p. 6, folder 10, box 89, Charles Merriam Papers [hereafter "Merriam Papers"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. A wonderful contemporary report on the Thompson-McAndrew episode is Walter Lippmann, American Inquisitors (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1993 [1928]). For historical accounts, see Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, pp. 485-86; Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools, pp. 191-94.
58. Pierce, Public Opinion, p. 281; untitled speech by William Thompson (typescript, March 31, 1927), p. 6, folder 10, box 89, Charles Merriam Papers [hereafter "Merriam Papers"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. A wonderful contemporary report on the Thompson-McAndrew episode is Walter Lippmann, American Inquisitors (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1993 [1928]). For historical accounts, see Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, pp. 485-86; Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools, pp. 191-94.
59. Pierce, Public Opinion, p. 281; untitled speech by William Thompson (typescript, March 31, 1927), p. 6, folder 10, box 89, Charles Merriam Papers [hereafter "Merriam Papers"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. A wonderful contemporary report on the Thompson-McAndrew episode is Walter Lippmann, American Inquisitors (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1993 [1928]). For historical accounts, see Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, pp. 485-86; Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools, pp. 191-94.
60. George S. Counts, School and Society in Chicago (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1928), pp. 275-76; "King George Defied by 'Big Bill,'" Literary Digest 95 (November 5, 1927): 6, folder 8, box 89, Merriam Papers.
61. George S. Counts, School and Society in Chicago (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1928), pp. 275-76; "King George Defied by 'Big Bill,'" Literary Digest 95 (November 5, 1927): 6, folder 8, box 89, Merriam Papers.
62. O. P. Flower to Pierce, November 21, 1923, folder 3, box 10, Pierce Papers. In response to one of Pierce's inquiries, another Iowa superintendent described Germans in his district who had attacked history books as, "in the language of the street, 'a bunch of nuts.'" Yet he also instructed Pierce not to publish his remarks, again demonstrating the grudging respect that school officials paid to citizen groups in textbook affairs. Pierce to Frank Smart, November 22, 1923, folder 1, box 15, Pierce Papers.
63. Journal of the Thirty-Sixth National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic (Minneapolis: Kimball and Storer, 1903), pp. 252-53; Lloyd Arthur Hunter, "The Sacred South: Postwar Confederates and the Sacralization of Southern Culture" (Ph.D. diss., St. Louis University, 1978), p. 225.
64. Journal of the Thirty-Sixth National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic (Minneapolis: Kimball and Storer, 1903), pp. 252-53; Lloyd Arthur Hunter, "The Sacred South: Postwar Confederates and the Sacralization of Southern Culture" (Ph.D. diss., St. Louis University, 1978), p. 225.
65. Paul Bacon to Pierce, December 6, 1929, folder 1, box 17, Pierce Papers. For Pierce's own analysis of this process, see Pierce, Public Opinion, esp. ch. 6.
66. Hearings Before the Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, p. 670; Harriet E. Tuell to Pierce, April 3, 1923, folder 3, box 16, Pierce Papers; Novick, That Noble Dream, p. 198n; Fred Arthur Bailey, "Free Speech and the 'Lost Cause' in Texas: A Study of Social Control in the New South," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 97 (1994): 469.
67. Hearings Before the Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, p. 670; Harriet E. Tuell to Pierce, April 3, 1923, folder 3, box 16, Pierce Papers; Novick, That Noble Dream, p. 198n; Fred Arthur Bailey, "Free Speech and the 'Lost Cause' in Texas: A Study of Social Control in the New South," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 97 (1994): 469.
68. Hearings Before the Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, p. 670; Harriet E. Tuell to Pierce, April 3, 1923, folder 3, box 16, Pierce Papers; Novick, That Noble Dream, p. 198n; Fred Arthur Bailey, "Free Speech and the 'Lost Cause' in Texas: A Study of Social Control in the New South," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 97 (1994): 469.
69. Charles H. Seaver to Pierce, May 31, 1922, folder 5, box 13; Charles A. Ellwood to Pierce, May 29, 1922, folder 2, box 10, both in Pierce Papers.
70. Frances Fitzgerald, America Revised (New York: Vintage, 1979), p. 59; Arthur H. Jennings to Pierce, August 2, 1923, folder 1, Box 15, Pierce Papers; Kenneth Karl Harrell, "The Ku Klux Klan in Louisiana, 1920-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1966), p. 274; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Anti-Negro Propaganda in School Textbooks (New York: NAACP, 1939), p. 12; Waller, Outside Demands, pp. 103-04; Beale, Are American Teachers Free? pp. 300-02, 615, 315.
71. Frances Fitzgerald, America Revised (New York: Vintage, 1979), p. 59; Arthur H. Jennings to Pierce, August 2, 1923, folder 1, Box 15, Pierce Papers; Kenneth Karl Harrell, "The Ku Klux Klan in Louisiana, 1920-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1966), p. 274; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Anti-Negro Propaganda in School Textbooks (New York: NAACP, 1939), p. 12; Waller, Outside Demands, pp. 103-04; Beale, Are American Teachers Free? pp. 300-02, 615, 315.
72. Frances Fitzgerald, America Revised (New York: Vintage, 1979), p. 59; Arthur H. Jennings to Pierce, August 2, 1923, folder 1, Box 15, Pierce Papers; Kenneth Karl Harrell, "The Ku Klux Klan in Louisiana, 1920-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1966), p. 274; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Anti-Negro Propaganda in School Textbooks (New York: NAACP, 1939), p. 12; Waller, Outside Demands, pp. 103-04; Beale, Are American Teachers Free? pp. 300-02, 615, 315.
73. Frances Fitzgerald, America Revised (New York: Vintage, 1979), p. 59; Arthur H. Jennings to Pierce, August 2, 1923, folder 1, Box 15, Pierce Papers; Kenneth Karl Harrell, "The Ku Klux Klan in Louisiana, 1920-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1966), p. 274; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Anti-Negro Propaganda in School Textbooks (New York: NAACP, 1939), p. 12; Waller, Outside Demands, pp. 103-04; Beale, Are American Teachers Free? pp. 300-02, 615, 315.
74. Frances Fitzgerald, America Revised (New York: Vintage, 1979), p. 59; Arthur H. Jennings to Pierce, August 2, 1923, folder 1, Box 15, Pierce Papers; Kenneth Karl Harrell, "The Ku Klux Klan in Louisiana, 1920-1930" (Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1966), p. 274; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Anti-Negro Propaganda in School Textbooks (New York: NAACP, 1939), p. 12; Waller, Outside Demands, pp. 103-04; Beale, Are American Teachers Free? pp. 300-02, 615, 315.
75. Flanders, Legislative Control, p. iii; Harriet E. Tuell to Pierce, April 3, 1923, folder 3, box 16; Charles A. Ellwood to Pierce, May 29, 1922, folder 2, box 10, both in Pierce Papers.
76. Charles F. Horne to Pierce, December 21, 1923, folder 1, box 7, Pierce Papers; William Pencak, For God and Country: The American Legion, 1919-1941 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989), pp. 275-77; "Proceedings of the Meeting of National Executive Committee of the American Legion" (typescript, June 15-16, 1925), p. 373, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
77. Charles F. Horne to Pierce, December 21, 1923, folder 1, box 7, Pierce Papers; William Pencak, For God and Country: The American Legion, 1919-1941 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989), pp. 275-77; "Proceedings of the Meeting of National Executive Committee of the American Legion" (typescript, June 15-16, 1925), p. 373, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
78. The touchstone for the 1890s controversy was the Grand Army of the Republic, America's largest Civil War veterans group. Alarmed by the era's labor strife, which seemed to underscore a lack of national "discipline," the GAR resolved in 1893 that "military instruction be made a part of the common school system." Two years later, New York City alone enlisted 10,000 public school students in its "American Guard." Yet military drill drew fire from Confederate veterans, who balked at the prospect of Yankee-sponsored student soldiers in the schools; from peace groups, who backed the GAR's efforts to erect school flags but blasted "anything relating to the duties of a soldier"; from labor unions, who feared that school drills "threaten the liberties of the masses"; and from Populists, one of whom wrote that "'the men who put guns in the hands of children . . . should receive the contents of the guns.'" Even some veterans opposed military training, arguing that "'if the children of the masses . . . are taught the use of arms it will endanger the property of the country.'" Margaret Merriam Gearhart, "Military Instruction in Civil Institutions of Learning, 1862-1914" (Master's thesis, University of Iowa, 1928), ch. 4; George J. Lankevich, "The Grand Army of the Republic in New York State, 1865-1898" (Ph.D. diss, Columbia University, 1967), p. 264; Journal of the
79. The touchstone for the 1890s controversy was the Grand Army of the Republic, America's largest Civil War veterans group. Alarmed by the era's labor strife, which seemed to underscore a lack of national "discipline," the GAR resolved in 1893 that "military instruction be made a part of the common school system." Two years later, New York City alone enlisted 10,000 public school students in its "American Guard." Yet military drill drew fire from Confederate veterans, who balked at the prospect of Yankee-sponsored student soldiers in the schools; from peace groups, who backed the GAR's efforts to erect school flags but blasted "anything relating to the duties of a soldier"; from labor unions, who feared that school drills "threaten the liberties of the masses"; and from Populists, one of whom wrote that "'the men who put guns in the hands of children . . . should receive the contents of the guns.'" Even some veterans opposed military training, arguing that "'if the children of the masses . . . are taught the use of arms it will endanger the property of the country.'" Margaret Merriam Gearhart, "Military Instruction in Civil Institutions of Learning, 1862-1914" (Master's thesis, University of Iowa, 1928), ch. 4; George J. Lankevich, "The Grand Army of the Republic in New York State, 1865-1898" (Ph.D. diss, Columbia University, 1967), p. 264; Journal of the Twenty-Ninth National Encampment. Grand Army of the Republic (Rockford, III.: Frank S. Horner, 1895), pp. 232-33, 239, 243.
80. The touchstone for the 1890s controversy was the Grand Army of the Republic, America's largest Civil War veterans group. Alarmed by the era's labor strife, which seemed to underscore a lack of national "discipline," the GAR resolved in 1893 that "military instruction be made a part of the common school system." Two years later, New York City alone enlisted 10,000 public school students in its "American Guard." Yet military drill drew fire from Confederate veterans, who balked at the prospect of Yankee-sponsored student soldiers in the schools; from peace groups, who backed the GAR's efforts to erect school flags but blasted "anything relating to the duties of a soldier"; from labor unions, who feared that school drills "threaten the liberties of the masses"; and from Populists, one of whom wrote that "'the men who put guns in the hands of children . . . should receive the contents of the guns.'" Even some veterans opposed military training, arguing that "'if the children of the masses . . . are taught the use of arms it will endanger the property of the country.'" Margaret Merriam Gearhart, "Military Instruction in Civil Institutions of Learning, 1862-1914" (Master's thesis, University of Iowa, 1928), ch. 4; George J. Lankevich, "The Grand Army of the Republic in New York State, 1865-1898" (Ph.D. diss, Columbia University, 1967), p. 264; Journal of the Twenty-Ninth National Encampment. Grand Army of the Republic (Rockford, III.: Frank S. Horner, 1895), pp. 232-33, 239, 243.
81. On the controversy over school military training during these years, see Bryce E. Nelson, Good Schools: The Seattle Public School System, 1901-1930 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), ch. 7; Reese, Power and the Promise of School Reform, ch. 9; Mirel, Rise and Fall of an Urban School System, pp. 45-48.
82. On the controversy over school military training during these years, see Bryce E. Nelson, Good Schools: The Seattle Public School System, 1901-1930 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), ch. 7; Reese, Power and the Promise of School Reform, ch. 9; Mirel, Rise and Fall of an Urban School System, pp. 45-48.
83. On the controversy over school military training during these years, see Bryce E. Nelson, Good Schools: The Seattle Public School System, 1901-1930 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), ch. 7; Reese, Power and the Promise of School Reform, ch. 9; Mirel, Rise and Fall of an Urban School System, pp. 45-48.
84. Daniel William Barthell, "The Committee on Militarism in Education, 1925-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1972), pp. 7-9; Fannie Fern Andrews to Charles Folsom, March 27, 1917, folder 456, box 39, Fannie Fern Andrews Papers, Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, MA; "An outline of a bill to upbuild national vitality through the establishment of physical education and training in the public schools of the state" (typescript, n.d. [1916]), reel 12.14, Woman's Peace Party Papers, SCPC; Eleanor G. Karsten to "State Chairman," December 21, 1916, reel 133.90, Woman's International League for Peace and Freedom Papers, SCPC.
85. Krug, Shaping of the American High School, p. 413; Flanders, Legislative Control, p. 81; Dudley Sargent DeGroot, "A History of Physical Education in California (1848-1939)" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1940), pp. 442-47, 585-88; "Notes and Comments," Mind and Body 21 (February 1915): 473-74. On the Turners and military training, see also William A. Stecher, "Military Training," Mind and Body 22 (November 1915): 812-14; Ernest A. Weier, The Work of the Turner Societies (Indianapolis: American Gymnastic Union, 1919), p. 18; Henry Metzner, History of the American Turners, 4th rev. ed. (Louisville: National Council of American Turners, 1989 [1924]), p. 29.
86. Krug, Shaping of the American High School, p. 413; Flanders, Legislative Control, p. 81; Dudley Sargent DeGroot, "A History of Physical Education in California (1848-1939)" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1940), pp. 442-47, 585-88; "Notes and Comments," Mind and Body 21 (February 1915): 473-74. On the Turners and military training, see also William A. Stecher, "Military Training," Mind and Body 22 (November 1915): 812-14; Ernest A. Weier, The Work of the Turner Societies (Indianapolis: American Gymnastic Union, 1919), p. 18; Henry Metzner, History of the American Turners, 4th rev. ed. (Louisville: National Council of American Turners, 1989 [1924]), p. 29.
87. Krug, Shaping of the American High School, p. 413; Flanders, Legislative Control, p. 81; Dudley Sargent DeGroot, "A History of Physical Education in California (1848-1939)" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1940), pp. 442-47, 585-88; "Notes and Comments," Mind and Body 21 (February 1915): 473-74. On the Turners and military training, see also William A. Stecher, "Military Training," Mind and Body 22 (November 1915): 812-14; Ernest A. Weier, The Work of the Turner Societies (Indianapolis: American Gymnastic Union, 1919), p. 18; Henry Metzner, History of the American Turners, 4th rev. ed. (Louisville: National Council of American Turners, 1989 [1924]), p. 29.
88. Krug, Shaping of the American High School, p. 413; Flanders, Legislative Control, p. 81; Dudley Sargent DeGroot, "A History of Physical Education in California (1848-1939)" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1940), pp. 442-47, 585-88; "Notes and Comments," Mind and Body 21 (February 1915): 473-74. On the Turners and military training, see also William A. Stecher, "Military Training," Mind and Body 22 (November 1915): 812-14; Ernest A. Weier, The Work of the Turner Societies (Indianapolis: American Gymnastic Union, 1919), p. 18; Henry Metzner, History of the American Turners, 4th rev. ed. (Louisville: National Council of American Turners, 1989 [1924]), p. 29.
89. Krug, Shaping of the American High School, p. 413; Flanders, Legislative Control, p. 81; Dudley Sargent DeGroot, "A History of Physical Education in California (1848-1939)" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1940), pp. 442-47, 585-88; "Notes and Comments," Mind and Body 21 (February 1915): 473-74. On the Turners and military training, see also William A. Stecher, "Military Training," Mind and Body 22 (November 1915): 812-14; Ernest A. Weier, The Work of the Turner Societies (Indianapolis: American Gymnastic Union, 1919), p. 18; Henry Metzner, History of the American Turners, 4th rev. ed. (Louisville: National Council of American Turners, 1989 [1924]), p. 29.
90. Krug, Shaping of the American High School, p. 413; Flanders, Legislative Control, p. 81; Dudley Sargent DeGroot, "A History of Physical Education in California (1848-1939)" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1940), pp. 442-47, 585-88; "Notes and Comments," Mind and Body 21 (February 1915): 473-74. On the Turners and military training, see also William A. Stecher, "Military Training," Mind and Body 22 (November 1915): 812-14; Ernest A. Weier, The Work of the Turner Societies (Indianapolis: American Gymnastic Union, 1919), p. 18; Henry Metzner, History of the American Turners, 4th rev. ed. (Louisville: National Council of American Turners, 1989 [1924]), p. 29.
91. Krug, Shaping of the American High School, p. 413; Flanders, Legislative Control, p. 81; Dudley Sargent DeGroot, "A History of Physical Education in California (1848-1939)" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1940), pp. 442-47, 585-88; "Notes and Comments," Mind and Body 21 (February 1915): 473-74. On the Turners and military training, see also William A. Stecher, "Military Training," Mind and Body 22 (November 1915): 812-14; Ernest A. Weier, The Work of the Turner Societies (Indianapolis: American Gymnastic Union, 1919), p. 18; Henry Metzner, History of the American Turners, 4th rev. ed. (Louisville: National Council of American Turners, 1989 [1924]), p. 29.
92. "School Army Drill Stirs Bitter Debate," New York Times, February 27, 1930; "Letter Barrage is New Move in ROTC Dispute," Brooklyn Eagle, March 11, 1930; "Military Training Issue Arouses Queens Parents," New York World, March 9, 1930, all in reel 70.48, Committee on Militarism in Education Papers [hereafter "CME Papers"], SCPC. The Board ended its deliberations the following year, finally authorizing Jamaica High School to establish an ROTC unit. By 1934, it enlisted 125 members. But only two years later, as a local newspaper reported, ROTC was "quietly dissolved" at Jamaica High School. The episode embodied a frequent fate of citizen-sponsored electives: after gaining official approval in a flash of publicity, the course fizzled for lack of students. "ROTC Quietly Dissolved at Jamaica High School," Jamaica Press, March 12, 1937, reel 70.47, CME Papers.
93. "School Army Drill Stirs Bitter Debate," New York Times, February 27, 1930; "Letter Barrage is New Move in ROTC Dispute," Brooklyn Eagle, March 11, 1930; "Military Training Issue Arouses Queens Parents," New York World, March 9, 1930, all in reel 70.48, Committee on Militarism in Education Papers [hereafter "CME Papers"], SCPC. The Board ended its deliberations the following year, finally authorizing Jamaica High School to establish an ROTC unit. By 1934, it enlisted 125 members. But only two years later, as a local newspaper reported, ROTC was "quietly dissolved" at Jamaica High School. The episode embodied a frequent fate of citizen-sponsored electives: after gaining official approval in a flash of publicity, the course fizzled for lack of students. "ROTC Quietly Dissolved at Jamaica High School," Jamaica Press, March 12, 1937, reel 70.47, CME Papers.
94. "School Army Drill Stirs Bitter Debate," New York Times, February 27, 1930; "Letter Barrage is New Move in ROTC Dispute," Brooklyn Eagle, March 11, 1930; "Military Training Issue Arouses Queens Parents," New York World, March 9, 1930, all in reel 70.48, Committee on Militarism in Education Papers [hereafter "CME Papers"], SCPC. The Board ended its deliberations the following year, finally authorizing Jamaica High School to establish an ROTC unit. By 1934, it enlisted 125 members. But only two years later, as a local newspaper reported, ROTC was "quietly dissolved" at Jamaica High School. The episode embodied a frequent fate of citizen-sponsored electives: after gaining official approval in a flash of publicity, the course fizzled for lack of students. "ROTC Quietly Dissolved at Jamaica High School," Jamaica Press, March 12, 1937, reel 70.47, CME Papers.
95. Rosewell P. Barnes, "Militarizing Our Youth" [1927], in Military Training, ed. E. Raymond Wilson (New York: Garland, 1971), p. 41.
96. Forged by twenty World War One officers in 1919, the Legion already boasted over 800,000 members by the following year. Army ROTC officers relied upon the Legion to counter pacifists' "agitation" and "subversive activities" throughout the interwar era, as one grateful editorialist acknowledged in 1939. Pencak, For God and Country, p. xii; "Legion Supports ROTC," Army and Navy Register, July 15, 1939, reel 70.34, CME Papers.
97. Forged by twenty World War One officers in 1919, the Legion already boasted over 800,000 members by the following year. Army ROTC officers relied upon the Legion to counter pacifists' "agitation" and "subversive activities" throughout the interwar era, as one grateful editorialist acknowledged in 1939. Pencak, For God and Country, p. xii; "Legion Supports ROTC," Army and Navy Register, July 15, 1939, reel 70.34, CME Papers.
98. Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, pp. 145, 62-63; Committee on Militarism in Education, The Campaign against Militarism in Education (n.p, 1931), reel 70.22; clipping, n.t., Topeka State Journal, September 13, 1939, reel 70.62, both in CME Papers; "The Americanism Commission of the American Legion" (typescript, January 11, 1928), p. 15, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
99. Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, pp. 145, 62-63; Committee on Militarism in Education, The Campaign against Militarism in Education (n.p, 1931), reel 70.22; clipping, n.t., Topeka State Journal, September 13, 1939, reel 70.62, both in CME Papers; "The Americanism Commission of the American Legion" (typescript, January 11, 1928), p. 15, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
100. Pierce, Citizens' Organizations, pp. 145, 62-63; Committee on Militarism in Education, The Campaign against Militarism in Education (n.p, 1931), reel 70.22; clipping, n.t., Topeka State Journal, September 13, 1939, reel 70.62, both in CME Papers; "The Americanism Commission of the American Legion" (typescript, January 11, 1928), p. 15, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
101. "Report of the Chairman of the National Americanism Commission to the National Executive Committee . . ." (typescript, May 6, 1932), p. 4, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
102. See, e.g., Edwin Johnson to Harold Sack, December 13, 1935; Sack to Johnson, December 6, 1935; Allan Hunter to Johnson, June 9, 1935; A. D. P. Gilmour to Johnson, September 13, 1937; D. Helen Wolcott to Johnson, May 19, 1939, all in reel 70.61, CME Papers.
103. Evelyn W. Abbott to Edwin Johnson, March 8, 1937, reel 70.22; James Weldon Johnson to Committee on Militarism in Education, January 23, 1929, reel 70.48; Francis Barbour to CME, June 2, 1938, reel 70.61; Charles M. Sharpe to CME, August 14, 1936, reel 70.61, all in CME Papers. For examples of early black support of school military training, see, e.g., Journal of the Twenty-Ninth National Encampment. Grand Army of the Republic, pp. 242, 244. On growing divisions within labor unions in the 1930s over ROTC, see, e.g., Florence Hanson to Tucker Smith, March 20, 1931, reel 70.31; Edwin Johnson to Hubert Barnett, November 7, 1938, reel 70.61, both in CME Papers.
104. Committee on Militarism in Education, A Misleading Proposal: The Move to Establish a Junior ROTC at Jamaica High School (n.p., n.d. [1929?]), reel 70.48; Harold J. Sack to Edwin Johnson, December 6, 1935, reel 70.61, both in CME Papers.
105. Ross A. Collins, A Growing Military Establishment (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1929), pp. 7-9, reel 70.34; "Reserve Unit in Twin City Discussed," Winston-Salem Sentinel, March 5, 1939, reel 70.62, both in CME Papers.
106. Ross A. Collins, A Growing Military Establishment (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1929), pp. 7-9, reel 70.34; "Reserve Unit in Twin City Discussed," Winston-Salem Sentinel, March 5, 1939, reel 70.62, both in CME Papers.
107. Citizens' Committee for Americanism, A Statement in Support of the Establishment of Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps in the High Schools of Peoria (n.p., n.d. [1938]); Dale R. Johnson to Edwin Johnson, January 25, 1939, both in reel 70.61, CME Papers.
108. Edwin Johnson to Dale R. Johnson, August 20, 1935; John T. Aydelotte to Johnson, July 30, 1935, both in reel 70.61; "Members of ROTC Jeer at Students' Peace Talks," New York World Telegram, April 10, 1935, reel 70.22; "War Plea Ignored by School Board," clipping, n.p., June 13, 1935, reel 70.48, all in CME Papers. On other student anti-ROTC demonstrations, see Fascist Tendencies in the ROTC (n.p, n.d. [1937?]), reel 70.22, CME Papers.
109. Edwin Johnson to Dale R. Johnson, August 20, 1935; John T. Aydelotte to Johnson, July 30, 1935, both in reel 70.61; "Members of ROTC Jeer at Students' Peace Talks," New York World Telegram, April 10, 1935, reel 70.22; "War Plea Ignored by School Board," clipping, n.p., June 13, 1935, reel 70.48, all in CME Papers. On other student anti-ROTC demonstrations, see Fascist Tendencies in the ROTC (n.p, n.d. [1937?]), reel 70.22, CME Papers.
110. In point of fact, many pupils never had the choice: by 1939, only about a third of American cities larger than 35,000 offered military training. Within these cities, moreover, no school could provide ROTC until it met the 100-cadet minimum. L. H. Lamb to Edwin Johnson, June 16, 1939, reel 70.62, CME Papers.
111. H. Reid Hunter to Theresa Wilson, October 8, 1929, reel 70.61; clipping, n.t., Salt Lake City Tribune, September 1931, reel 70.22, both in CME Papers; Ellen Lamar Thomas, "Shall We Go On Making Little Soldiers?" Clearing House, March 1937, reel 41.35, NCPW Papers; "Kenosha to Vote on ROTC Question," Breaking the War Habit 6 (February 15, 1938), reel 70.62, CME Papers.
112. H. Reid Hunter to Theresa Wilson, October 8, 1929, reel 70.61; clipping, n.t., Salt Lake City Tribune, September 1931, reel 70.22, both in CME Papers; Ellen Lamar Thomas, "Shall We Go On Making Little Soldiers?" Clearing House, March 1937, reel 41.35, NCPW Papers; "Kenosha to Vote on ROTC Question," Breaking the War Habit 6 (February 15, 1938), reel 70.62, CME Papers.
113. H. Reid Hunter to Theresa Wilson, October 8, 1929, reel 70.61; clipping, n.t., Salt Lake City Tribune, September 1931, reel 70.22, both in CME Papers; Ellen Lamar Thomas, "Shall We Go On Making Little Soldiers?" Clearing House, March 1937, reel 41.35, NCPW Papers; "Kenosha to Vote on ROTC Question," Breaking the War Habit 6 (February 15, 1938), reel 70.62, CME Papers.
114. Alberto C. Bonaschi, "The Racial Basis of Language Choice" (typescript, February 7, 1936), p. 2, folder 2, box 97, Leonard Covello Papers [hereafter "Covello Papers"], Balch Institute of Ethnic Studies, Philadelphia, PA.
115. Peterson, Politics of School Reform, ch. 4; Selwyn Troen, The Public and the Schools: Shaping the St. Louis System, 1838-1920 (Columbia, MO, 1975), ch. 3; David B. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 106-109.
116. Peterson, Politics of School Reform, ch. 4; Selwyn Troen, The Public and the Schools: Shaping the St. Louis System, 1838-1920 (Columbia, MO, 1975), ch. 3; David B. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 106-109.
117. Peterson, Politics of School Reform, ch. 4; Selwyn Troen, The Public and the Schools: Shaping the St. Louis System, 1838-1920 (Columbia, MO, 1975), ch. 3; David B. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 106-109.
118. William G. Ross, Forging New Freedoms: Nativism, Education, and the Constitution, 1917-1927 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), chs. 1-6, 9.
119. "German in Chicago's Public Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, March 7, 1893; "The German Language Taught in Public Schools," Chicagoer Arbeiter Zeitung, January 5, 1881; "German Instructions - Methods of Teaching in Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 28, 1889, "The Instruction in German," Abendpost, July 15, 1893, all in file IA1b, box 10, Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey [hereafter "CFLPS"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. Between 1889 and 1893, a short-lived Illinois law requiring English-language instruction in the common subjects seems only to have enhanced interest in German. Ross, Forging New Freedoms, pp. 25-26; "German Punches Will Drive the Indigenous Hypocrites on November 4th," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, November 1, 1890, file IA1a, box 10, CFLPS.
120. "German in Chicago's Public Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, March 7, 1893; "The German Language Taught in Public Schools," Chicagoer Arbeiter Zeitung, January 5, 1881; "German Instructions - Methods of Teaching in Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 28, 1889, "The Instruction in German," Abendpost, July 15, 1893, all in file IA1b, box 10, Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey [hereafter "CFLPS"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. Between 1889 and 1893, a short-lived Illinois law requiring English-language instruction in the common subjects seems only to have enhanced interest in German. Ross, Forging New Freedoms, pp. 25-26; "German Punches Will Drive the Indigenous Hypocrites on November 4th," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, November 1, 1890, file IA1a, box 10, CFLPS.
121. "German in Chicago's Public Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, March 7, 1893; "The German Language Taught in Public Schools," Chicagoer Arbeiter Zeitung, January 5, 1881; "German Instructions - Methods of Teaching in Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 28, 1889, "The Instruction in German," Abendpost, July 15, 1893, all in file IA1b, box 10, Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey [hereafter "CFLPS"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. Between 1889 and 1893, a short-lived Illinois law requiring English-language instruction in the common subjects seems only to have enhanced interest in German. Ross, Forging New Freedoms, pp. 25-26; "German Punches Will Drive the Indigenous Hypocrites on November 4th," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, November 1, 1890, file IA1a, box 10, CFLPS.
122. "German in Chicago's Public Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, March 7, 1893; "The German Language Taught in Public Schools," Chicagoer Arbeiter Zeitung, January 5, 1881; "German Instructions - Methods of Teaching in Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 28, 1889, "The Instruction in German," Abendpost, July 15, 1893, all in file IA1b, box 10, Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey [hereafter "CFLPS"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. Between 1889 and 1893, a short-lived Illinois law requiring English-language instruction in the common subjects seems only to have enhanced interest in German. Ross, Forging New Freedoms, pp. 25-26; "German Punches Will Drive the Indigenous Hypocrites on November 4th," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, November 1, 1890, file IA1a, box 10, CFLPS.
123. "German in Chicago's Public Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, March 7, 1893; "The German Language Taught in Public Schools," Chicagoer Arbeiter Zeitung, January 5, 1881; "German Instructions - Methods of Teaching in Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 28, 1889, "The Instruction in German," Abendpost, July 15, 1893, all in file IA1b, box 10, Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey [hereafter "CFLPS"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. Between 1889 and 1893, a short-lived Illinois law requiring English-language instruction in the common subjects seems only to have enhanced interest in German. Ross, Forging New Freedoms, pp. 25-26; "German Punches Will Drive the Indigenous Hypocrites on November 4th," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, November 1, 1890, file IA1a, box 10, CFLPS.
124. "German in Chicago's Public Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, March 7, 1893; "The German Language Taught in Public Schools," Chicagoer Arbeiter Zeitung, January 5, 1881; "German Instructions - Methods of Teaching in Schools," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 28, 1889, "The Instruction in German," Abendpost, July 15, 1893, all in file IA1b, box 10, Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey [hereafter "CFLPS"], Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. Between 1889 and 1893, a short-lived Illinois law requiring English-language instruction in the common subjects seems only to have enhanced interest in German. Ross, Forging New Freedoms, pp. 25-26; "German Punches Will Drive the Indigenous Hypocrites on November 4th," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, November 1, 1890, file IA1a, box 10, CFLPS.
125. See, e.g., letter from C. A. Walleck to E. Durante, L'Italia, June 9, 1900, file IA1b, box 21; "The Bohemians," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, ]une 8, 1900, file IA1b, box 1, both in CFLPS; M. D. Learned, "German in the Public Schools," German-American Annals 11 (1913): 103; clipping, n.t., L'Italia, June 30, 1900, file IA1b, box 21, CFLPS.
126. See, e.g., letter from C. A. Walleck to E. Durante, L'Italia, June 9, 1900, file IA1b, box 21; "The Bohemians," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, ]une 8, 1900, file IA1b, box 1, both in CFLPS; M. D. Learned, "German in the Public Schools," German-American Annals 11 (1913): 103; clipping, n.t., L'Italia, June 30, 1900, file IA1b, box 21, CFLPS.
127. See, e.g., letter from C. A. Walleck to E. Durante, L'Italia, June 9, 1900, file IA1b, box 21; "The Bohemians," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, ]une 8, 1900, file IA1b, box 1, both in CFLPS; M. D. Learned, "German in the Public Schools," German-American Annals 11 (1913): 103; clipping, n.t., L'Italia, June 30, 1900, file IA1b, box 21, CFLPS.
128. See, e.g., letter from C. A. Walleck to E. Durante, L'Italia, June 9, 1900, file IA1b, box 21; "The Bohemians," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, ]une 8, 1900, file IA1b, box 1, both in CFLPS; M. D. Learned, "German in the Public Schools," German-American Annals 11 (1913): 103; clipping, n.t., L'Italia, June 30, 1900, file IA1b, box 21, CFLPS.
129. "The Board of Education Yesterday Resolved That Bohemian and Other Living Languages May Be Taught in Public Schools," Denni Hlasatel, May 2, 1912, file IA1b, box 1; "Polish Language in Chicago High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 20, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "On the Question of Teaching the Polish Language in Public Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 2, 1910, file IA1b, box 32; "Language Instruction in Schools," Denni Hlasatel, April 1, 1912, file IA1b, box 1, all in CFLPS.
130. "The Board of Education Yesterday Resolved That Bohemian and Other Living Languages May Be Taught in Public Schools," Denni Hlasatel, May 2, 1912, file IA1b, box 1; "Polish Language in Chicago High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 20, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "On the Question of Teaching the Polish Language in Public Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 2, 1910, file IA1b, box 32; "Language Instruction in Schools," Denni Hlasatel, April 1, 1912, file IA1b, box 1, all in CFLPS.
131. "The Board of Education Yesterday Resolved That Bohemian and Other Living Languages May Be Taught in Public Schools," Denni Hlasatel, May 2, 1912, file IA1b, box 1; "Polish Language in Chicago High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 20, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "On the Question of Teaching the Polish Language in Public Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 2, 1910, file IA1b, box 32; "Language Instruction in Schools," Denni Hlasatel, April 1, 1912, file IA1b, box 1, all in CFLPS.
132. "The Board of Education Yesterday Resolved That Bohemian and Other Living Languages May Be Taught in Public Schools," Denni Hlasatel, May 2, 1912, file IA1b, box 1; "Polish Language in Chicago High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 20, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "On the Question of Teaching the Polish Language in Public Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 2, 1910, file IA1b, box 32; "Language Instruction in Schools," Denni Hlasatel, April 1, 1912, file IA1b, box 1, all in CFLPS.
133. "The New School Year Begins," Denni Hlasatel, August 31, 1913; "Not Enough Pride," Denni Hlasatel, September 11, 1913, both in file IA1b, box 1, CFLPS. For similar expressions of shame and disappointment by Polish spokesmen, see "Beginning of the School Year," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 5, 1914, file IA1b, box 32; by Germans, see "The School and German Parents," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 27, 1916, file IA1b, box 10; "German in Our Public Schools," Abendpost, February 9, 1916, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS. On ethnic newspapers' efforts to register students for language classes, see, e.g., "The Czech Language in the High Schools," Denni Hlasatel, December 15, 1911, file IA1b, box 1; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "Instruction in German," Abendpost, September 30, 1910, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS.
134. "The New School Year Begins," Denni Hlasatel, August 31, 1913; "Not Enough Pride," Denni Hlasatel, September 11, 1913, both in file IA1b, box 1, CFLPS. For similar expressions of shame and disappointment by Polish spokesmen, see "Beginning of the School Year," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 5, 1914, file IA1b, box 32; by Germans, see "The School and German Parents," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 27, 1916, file IA1b, box 10; "German in Our Public Schools," Abendpost, February 9, 1916, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS. On ethnic newspapers' efforts to register students for language classes, see, e.g., "The Czech Language in the High Schools," Denni Hlasatel, December 15, 1911, file IA1b, box 1; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "Instruction in German," Abendpost, September 30, 1910, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS.
135. "The New School Year Begins," Denni Hlasatel, August 31, 1913; "Not Enough Pride," Denni Hlasatel, September 11, 1913, both in file IA1b, box 1, CFLPS. For similar expressions of shame and disappointment by Polish spokesmen, see "Beginning of the School Year," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 5, 1914, file IA1b, box 32; by Germans, see "The School and German Parents," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 27, 1916, file IA1b, box 10; "German in Our Public Schools," Abendpost, February 9, 1916, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS. On ethnic newspapers' efforts to register students for language classes, see, e.g., "The Czech Language in the High Schools," Denni Hlasatel, December 15, 1911, file IA1b, box 1; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "Instruction in German," Abendpost, September 30, 1910, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS.
136. "The New School Year Begins," Denni Hlasatel, August 31, 1913; "Not Enough Pride," Denni Hlasatel, September 11, 1913, both in file IA1b, box 1, CFLPS. For similar expressions of shame and disappointment by Polish spokesmen, see "Beginning of the School Year," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 5, 1914, file IA1b, box 32; by Germans, see "The School and German Parents," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 27, 1916, file IA1b, box 10; "German in Our Public Schools," Abendpost, February 9, 1916, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS. On ethnic newspapers' efforts to register students for language classes, see, e.g., "The Czech Language in the High Schools," Denni Hlasatel, December 15, 1911, file IA1b, box 1; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "Instruction in German," Abendpost, September 30, 1910, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS.
137. "The New School Year Begins," Denni Hlasatel, August 31, 1913; "Not Enough Pride," Denni Hlasatel, September 11, 1913, both in file IA1b, box 1, CFLPS. For similar expressions of shame and disappointment by Polish spokesmen, see "Beginning of the School Year," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 5, 1914, file IA1b, box 32; by Germans, see "The School and German Parents," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 27, 1916, file IA1b, box 10; "German in Our Public Schools," Abendpost, February 9, 1916, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS. On ethnic newspapers' efforts to register students for language classes, see, e.g., "The Czech Language in the High Schools," Denni Hlasatel, December 15, 1911, file IA1b, box 1; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "Instruction in German," Abendpost, September 30, 1910, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS.
138. "The New School Year Begins," Denni Hlasatel, August 31, 1913; "Not Enough Pride," Denni Hlasatel, September 11, 1913, both in file IA1b, box 1, CFLPS. For similar expressions of shame and disappointment by Polish spokesmen, see "Beginning of the School Year," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 5, 1914, file IA1b, box 32; by Germans, see "The School and German Parents," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 27, 1916, file IA1b, box 10; "German in Our Public Schools," Abendpost, February 9, 1916, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS. On ethnic newspapers' efforts to register students for language classes, see, e.g., "The Czech Language in the High Schools," Denni Hlasatel, December 15, 1911, file IA1b, box 1; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "Instruction in German," Abendpost, September 30, 1910, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS.
139. "The New School Year Begins," Denni Hlasatel, August 31, 1913; "Not Enough Pride," Denni Hlasatel, September 11, 1913, both in file IA1b, box 1, CFLPS. For similar expressions of shame and disappointment by Polish spokesmen, see "Beginning of the School Year," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 5, 1914, file IA1b, box 32; by Germans, see "The School and German Parents," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 27, 1916, file IA1b, box 10; "German in Our Public Schools," Abendpost, February 9, 1916, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS. On ethnic newspapers' efforts to register students for language classes, see, e.g., "The Czech Language in the High Schools," Denni Hlasatel, December 15, 1911, file IA1b, box 1; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "Instruction in German," Abendpost, September 30, 1910, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS.
140. "The New School Year Begins," Denni Hlasatel, August 31, 1913; "Not Enough Pride," Denni Hlasatel, September 11, 1913, both in file IA1b, box 1, CFLPS. For similar expressions of shame and disappointment by Polish spokesmen, see "Beginning of the School Year," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 5, 1914, file IA1b, box 32; by Germans, see "The School and German Parents," Illinois Staats-Zeitung, January 27, 1916, file IA1b, box 10; "German in Our Public Schools," Abendpost, February 9, 1916, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS. On ethnic newspapers' efforts to register students for language classes, see, e.g., "The Czech Language in the High Schools," Denni Hlasatel, December 15, 1911, file IA1b, box 1; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32; "Instruction in German," Abendpost, September 30, 1910, file IA1b, box 10, all in CFLPS.
141. After the Chicago school board agreed to offer Hebrew in the schools, for example, Jewish groups identified several potential teachers with "splendid equipment as Hebraists," as one activist recalled. Yet none of the candidates could meet "the general requirements for high school teaching," so the course was suspended. Likewise, Polish classes were delayed for lack of qualified instructors. "Yiddish and Hebrew in the Public Schools," Daily Jewish Courier, May 2, 1912; H. A. Lipsky, "Marshall High School and Hebrew," Daily Jewish Courier, May 12, 1922, both in file IA1b, box 22, CFLPS; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32, CFLPS.
142. After the Chicago school board agreed to offer Hebrew in the schools, for example, Jewish groups identified several potential teachers with "splendid equipment as Hebraists," as one activist recalled. Yet none of the candidates could meet "the general requirements for high school teaching," so the course was suspended. Likewise, Polish classes were delayed for lack of qualified instructors. "Yiddish and Hebrew in the Public Schools," Daily Jewish Courier, May 2, 1912; H. A. Lipsky, "Marshall High School and Hebrew," Daily Jewish Courier, May 12, 1922, both in file IA1b, box 22, CFLPS; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32, CFLPS.
143. After the Chicago school board agreed to offer Hebrew in the schools, for example, Jewish groups identified several potential teachers with "splendid equipment as Hebraists," as one activist recalled. Yet none of the candidates could meet "the general requirements for high school teaching," so the course was suspended. Likewise, Polish classes were delayed for lack of qualified instructors. "Yiddish and Hebrew in the Public Schools," Daily Jewish Courier, May 2, 1912; H. A. Lipsky, "Marshall High School and Hebrew," Daily Jewish Courier, May 12, 1922, both in file IA1b, box 22, CFLPS; "The Polish Language in Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 1, 1911, file IA1b, box 32, CFLPS.
144. "Polish Language in Chicago High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 20, 1911; "The School Question," Dziennik Chicagoski, January 19, 1891; "The Polish Language in the Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 4, 1911, all in file IA1b, box 32, CFLPS. Within the Jewish community, likewise, teachers at "Talmud Torahs" (afternoon Hebrew schools) objected to Hebrew instruction in the public schools. "A Glorious Hebrew Demonstration," clipping, Daily Jewish Courier, n.d. [1922], file IA1b, box 22, CFLPS.
145. "Polish Language in Chicago High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 20, 1911; "The School Question," Dziennik Chicagoski, January 19, 1891; "The Polish Language in the Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 4, 1911, all in file IA1b, box 32, CFLPS. Within the Jewish community, likewise, teachers at "Talmud Torahs" (afternoon Hebrew schools) objected to Hebrew instruction in the public schools. "A Glorious Hebrew Demonstration," clipping, Daily Jewish Courier, n.d. [1922], file IA1b, box 22, CFLPS.
146. "Polish Language in Chicago High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 20, 1911; "The School Question," Dziennik Chicagoski, January 19, 1891; "The Polish Language in the Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 4, 1911, all in file IA1b, box 32, CFLPS. Within the Jewish community, likewise, teachers at "Talmud Torahs" (afternoon Hebrew schools) objected to Hebrew instruction in the public schools. "A Glorious Hebrew Demonstration," clipping, Daily Jewish Courier, n.d. [1922], file IA1b, box 22, CFLPS.
147. "Polish Language in Chicago High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, September 20, 1911; "The School Question," Dziennik Chicagoski, January 19, 1891; "The Polish Language in the Public High Schools," Dziennik Zwiazkowy, November 4, 1911, all in file IA1b, box 32, CFLPS. Within the Jewish community, likewise, teachers at "Talmud Torahs" (afternoon Hebrew schools) objected to Hebrew instruction in the public schools. "A Glorious Hebrew Demonstration," clipping, Daily Jewish Courier, n.d. [1922], file IA1b, box 22, CFLPS.
148. Ross, Forging New Freedoms, pp. 61-62; "First Annual Report of the Committee on Education of the Orders of the Sons of Italy. Grand Lodge. State of New York, 1921-22" (typescript, 1922), p. 3, folder 1, box 91; Leonard Covello to Aurelio Sofia, January 6, 1923, folder 1, box 91; Leonard Covello, "The Italian Language" (typescript, 1933), folder 13, box 82; Covello to "Dear Fellow Members," April 29, 1927, folder 4, box 97; Covello to Sofia, January 30, 1923, folder 1, box 91, all in Covello Papers. By 1935, the minimum enrollment to create an Italian class in New York had risen from 60 to 75. George J. Ryan to Louis Macchiaverna, September 10, 1935, folder 2, box 97, Covello Papers.
149. Ross, Forging New Freedoms, pp. 61-62; "First Annual Report of the Committee on Education of the Orders of the Sons of Italy. Grand Lodge. State of New York, 1921-22" (typescript, 1922), p. 3, folder 1, box 91; Leonard Covello to Aurelio Sofia, January 6, 1923, folder 1, box 91; Leonard Covello, "The Italian Language" (typescript, 1933), folder 13, box 82; Covello to "Dear Fellow Members," April 29, 1927, folder 4, box 97; Covello to Sofia, January 30, 1923, folder 1, box 91, all in Covello Papers. By 1935, the minimum enrollment to create an Italian class in New York had risen from 60 to 75. George J. Ryan to Louis Macchiaverna, September 10, 1935, folder 2, box 97, Covello Papers.
150. Robert Whitney Peebles, "Leonard Covello: A Study of an Immigrant's Contribution to New York City" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1967), pp. 114-15, 141-42, 154-57; Covello, "Yearly Report of the Department of Italian. September 1925 to June 1926" (typescript, 1926), p. 1, folder 20, box 27, Covello Papers.
151. Robert Whitney Peebles, "Leonard Covello: A Study of an Immigrant's Contribution to New York City" (Ed.D. diss., New York University, 1967), pp. 114-15, 141-42, 154-57; Covello, "Yearly Report of the Department of Italian. September 1925 to June 1926" (typescript, 1926), p. 1, folder 20, box 27, Covello Papers.
152. Theodore Huebener, "Foreign Languages For Forty Years," High Points (April 1959): 12, folder 1; Covello, "The Italian Language" (typescript, n.d. [1930]), p. 2, folder 3, both in box 98, Covello Papers.
153. Theodore Huebener, "Foreign Languages For Forty Years," High Points (April 1959): 12, folder 1; Covello, "The Italian Language" (typescript, n.d. [1930]), p. 2, folder 3, both in box 98, Covello Papers.
154. Peebles, "Leonard Covello," p. 130;
155. Mary Lauricella to Covello, November 18, 1936, folder 4, box 97, Covello Papers. As elsewhere, of course, a host of other factors influenced New Yorkers' enrollment in Italian - indeed, in foreign languages generally - after World War One. Large fractions of Italian students entered new "industrial" or "commercial" tracks, which frequently did not require foreign-language study. Most of all, enrollments suffered from a shortage of qualified teachers. By 1935, fewer than one-third of the Italian instructors in New York were licensed to teach the subject. Many schools simply assigned it to an Italian-American faculty member, even if this individual normally taught a "practical" course like bookkeeping or mechanical drawing. The overall fraction of Italian-Americans in the instructional force was also paltry, thanks to suffer teaching requirements and rising opportunities in other professional arenas. By 1937, in fact, less than 3 percent of New York's teachers traced their origins to Italy. Huebener, "Foreign Languages for Forty Years," pp. 12-13; Harry N. Rosenfield to Covello, November 5, 1936, and November 20, 1936, folder 4, box 97; R. Wesley Burnham to Rosenfield, January 28, 1937, folder 1, box 97; Albert C. Bonaschi, "The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages: Italian" (typescript, March 30, 1936), pp. 6-7, folder 2, box 97; Anthony H. Conti to Covello, January 3, 1934, folder 4, box 97; "Teachers of Italian Origin in American (Public) Schools" (typescript, 1937), pp. 5-6, folder 5, box 84, all in Covello Papers.
156. Covello to "Dear Fellow Members," April 29, 1927, folder 4, box 97, Covello Papers. The Italian Teachers Association was initially organized in 1912, but fell apart during the First World War. With Covello's help, it was revived in 1921. Italian Teachers Association, "Eighteenth Annual Report" (typescript, 1939), p. 5, folder 7, box 89, Covello Papers.
157. In the case of the "Legionnaire Schoolmasters Club," a group of American Legion teachers, this reluctance stemmed from dissatisfaction with the larger organization's educational policies. Yet even teachers who agreed with their pressure group's positions often refused to promote them in the schools, for fear of "interfering" with "local management." Pencak, For God and Country, pp. 266-67; Samuel Engle Burr, Our Flag and Our Schools (n.p., 1937), p. 43, "Flag" Vertical File, ALNH; W. B. Townsend to "Presidents of Legionnaire Schoolmasters Clubs," n.d. [1938], American Legion folder, box 3, William Russell Papers, Teachers College Archives, Columbia University, New York; Journal of the Twenty-Sixth National Encampment. Grand Army of the Republic (Albany, N.Y.; S. H. Wentworth, 1892), pp. 257-59.
158. In the case of the "Legionnaire Schoolmasters Club," a group of American Legion teachers, this reluctance stemmed from dissatisfaction with the larger organization's educational policies. Yet even teachers who agreed with their pressure group's positions often refused to promote them in the schools, for fear of "interfering" with "local management." Pencak, For God and Country, pp. 266-67; Samuel Engle Burr, Our Flag and Our Schools (n.p., 1937), p. 43, "Flag" Vertical File, ALNH; W. B. Townsend to "Presidents of Legionnaire Schoolmasters Clubs," n.d. [1938], American Legion folder, box 3, William Russell Papers, Teachers College Archives, Columbia University, New York; Journal of the Twenty-Sixth National Encampment. Grand Army of the Republic (Albany, N.Y.; S. H. Wentworth, 1892), pp. 257-59.
159. In the case of the "Legionnaire Schoolmasters Club," a group of American Legion teachers, this reluctance stemmed from dissatisfaction with the larger organization's educational policies. Yet even teachers who agreed with their pressure group's positions often refused to promote them in the schools, for fear of "interfering" with "local management." Pencak, For God and Country, pp. 266-67; Samuel Engle Burr, Our Flag and Our Schools (n.p., 1937), p. 43, "Flag" Vertical File, ALNH; W. B. Townsend to "Presidents of Legionnaire Schoolmasters Clubs," n.d. [1938], American Legion folder, box 3, William Russell Papers, Teachers College Archives, Columbia University, New York; Journal of the Twenty-Sixth National Encampment. Grand Army of the Republic (Albany, N.Y.; S. H. Wentworth, 1892), pp. 257-59.
160. Alberto C. Bonaschi, "The Racial Basis of Language Choice" (typescript, February 7, 1936), pp. 2-3, folder 2, box 97, Covello Papers.
161. Bonaschi, "Racial Basis of Language Choice," p. 4; Herbert M. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1893-1958, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 97-98. The report's seven objectives were health, "command of fundamental processes," "worthy home-membership" (not "family membership," as Bonaschi mistakenly claimed), vocation, citizenship, "worthy use of leisure," and ethical character. For a detailed discussion, see Krug, Shaping of the American High School, ch. 15.
162. Bonaschi, "Racial Basis of Language Choice," p. 4; Herbert M. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1893-1958, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 97-98. The report's seven objectives were health, "command of fundamental processes," "worthy home-membership" (not "family membership," as Bonaschi mistakenly claimed), vocation, citizenship, "worthy use of leisure," and ethical character. For a detailed discussion, see Krug, Shaping of the American High School, ch. 15.
163. Bonaschi, "Racial Basis of Language Choice," p. 4; Herbert M. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1893-1958, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 97-98. The report's seven objectives were health, "command of fundamental processes," "worthy home-membership" (not "family membership," as Bonaschi mistakenly claimed), vocation, citizenship, "worthy use of leisure," and ethical character. For a detailed discussion, see Krug, Shaping of the American High School, ch. 15.
164. Ironically historian Diane Ravitch has described the plummeting enrollments in foreign language courses after 1918 as a "casualty" of "progressive education." To be sure, many progressive critics derided foreign-language instruction as "mere knowledge." Yet Bonaschi's remarks remind us that progressives' rhetoric could be used to buttress these courses, as well. Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 1945-1980 (New York: Basic, 1983), pp. 68-69.
165. Waller, Outside Demands, p. 39.
166. Merle Curti to Pierce, September 1, 1932, folder 6, box 9, Pierce Papers. See also Merle Curti, The Social Ideas of American Educators (New York: Scribner's, 1935), which Curti wrote for the American Historical Association's reconstructionist-inspired Commission on the Social Studies.
167. "America at the Cross Roads," Proceedings of the Second Imperial Klonvokation (n.p., 1924), p. 33; "Education," Kourier 2 (May 1926): 30.
168. "America at the Cross Roads," Proceedings of the Second Imperial Klonvokation (n.p., 1924), p. 33; "Education," Kourier 2 (May 1926): 30.
169. Pauline Follansbee to Sophie Hardy, November 18, 1915, folder 456, box 39, Andrews Papers; Journal of the Thirty-Third National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic (Philadelphia: Town Printing Company, 1899), p. 369; Journal of the Forty-Second Annual Convention. Department of Indiana. Woman's Relief Corps (n.p., 1925), pp. 121-22; "The Americanism Commission of the American Legion" (typescript, January 11, 1928), pp. 68-69, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
170. Pauline Follansbee to Sophie Hardy, November 18, 1915, folder 456, box 39, Andrews Papers; Journal of the Thirty-Third National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic (Philadelphia: Town Printing Company, 1899), p. 369; Journal of the Forty-Second Annual Convention. Department of Indiana. Woman's Relief Corps (n.p., 1925), pp. 121-22; "The Americanism Commission of the American Legion" (typescript, January 11, 1928), pp. 68-69, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
171. Pauline Follansbee to Sophie Hardy, November 18, 1915, folder 456, box 39, Andrews Papers; Journal of the Thirty-Third National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic (Philadelphia: Town Printing Company, 1899), p. 369; Journal of the Forty-Second Annual Convention. Department of Indiana. Woman's Relief Corps (n.p., 1925), pp. 121-22; "The Americanism Commission of the American Legion" (typescript, January 11, 1928), pp. 68-69, Americanism Minutes, ALNH.
172. Chicago Tribune, February 24, 1893, file IA1a, box 10, CFLPS.