The necessity and challenges of establishing a truth and reconciliation commission in Rwanda

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 767-823

  Sarkin, Jeremy ^a,b,c,d  

^a University of the Western Cape ^*  (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF THE WESTERN CAPE   (South Africa)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI   (United States)

^d Hum Rights Comm of South Africa   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GENOCIDE; HUMAN RIGHTS; INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK;

RWANDA;

EID: 0033403774     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.1999.0042     Document Type: Article

References (15)

1. Prior to the 1993 killings, Rwanda had a population of seven to seven and a half million people. See Dalia Fahmy, Rwanda: Report Blames Government for Mass Slayings, INTER PRESS SERV. GLOBAL INFO. NETWORK, 8 Mar. 1993, at 1, available in 1993 WL 2543792 (reporting a population of seven and a half million); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, RWANDA: PERSECUTION OF TUTSI MINORITY AND REPRESSION OF GOVERNMENT CRITICS, 1990-1992, at 4 (May 1992) (reporting a population of seven million).
2. Prior to the 1993 killings, Rwanda had a population of seven to seven and a half million people. See Dalia Fahmy, Rwanda: Report Blames Government for Mass Slayings, INTER PRESS SERV. GLOBAL INFO. NETWORK, 8 Mar. 1993, at 1, available in 1993 WL 2543792 (reporting a population of seven and a half million); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, RWANDA: PERSECUTION OF TUTSI MINORITY AND REPRESSION OF GOVERNMENT CRITICS, 1990-1992, at 4 (May 1992) (reporting a population of seven million).
3. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
4. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
5. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
6. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
7. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
8. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
9. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
10. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
11. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
12. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
13. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
14. See Rwanda: Crying out for Justice, AMNESTY INT'L, Apr. 1995, at 1. Reports differ significantly as to the actual number of people killed. Estimates range from 500,000 to one million. Most media reports estimate the number to be closer to 500,000 while international NGOs that have been to Rwanda to investigate estimate the number to be closer to one million. See id.; see also Alan Zarembo, Judgment Day: In Rwanda, 92,392 Genocide Suspects Await Trial, HARPER'S MAG., Apr. 1997, at 68 (reporting 800,000 deaths). On genocide issues generally, see Frank Chalk, Definitions of Genocide and Their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, 4 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 149 (1989); Michael Freeman, The Theory and Prevention of Genocide, 6 HOLOCAUST & GENOCIDE STUD. 185 (1991); Barbara Harff & Ted R. Gurr, Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945, 32 INT'L STUD. Q. 359 (1988); LEO KUPER, GENOCIDE: ITS POLITICAL USE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (1981); Leo Kuper, The Prevention of Genocide: Cultural and Structural Indicators of Genocidal Threat, 12 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 157 (1989); ERVIN STAUB, THE ROOTS OF EVIL: THE ORIGINS OF GENOCIDE AND OTHER GROUP VIOLENCE (1989); GENOCIDE IN RWANDA: A COLLECTIVE MEMORY (John A. Berry & Carol Pott Berry eds., 1995); TED R. GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993); Barbara Harff, A Theoretical Model of Genocides and Politicides, 4 J. ETHNO-DEVELOPMENT 25 (1994); KURT JONASSOHN & KARIN SOLVEIC BJÖRNSON, GENOCIDE AND GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS: IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1998).
15. There have been several retaliatory attacks on Hutu individuals orchestrated by the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), the now-governing political party, since the genocide of 1994. These attacks have included deliberate executions and abductions of combatants and unarmed civilian members of the Hutu ethnic group. See Rwanda: Reports of Killings and Abductions by the Rwandese Patriotic Army, April-August 1994, AMNESTY INT'L, Oct. 1994, at 3. These attacks not only perpetuate unacceptable violence and systematic violations of human rights, but they also provide material for the propagandizing of the former Hutu officials who organized the genocide. In addition, retaliatory killings make it more difficult to investigate and promote confessions and forgiveness.