Municipal matters: The urbanization of consciousness and political change in Tehran

Middle East Report

Volumn , Issue 212, 1999, Pages 22-27

  Ehsani, Kaveh ^a,b  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GOVERNANCE APPROACH; POLITICAL CHANGE; URBANIZATION;

IRAN;

EID: 0033399943     PISSN: 08992851     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3012909     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. See Kaveh Ehsani, "Islam, Modernity, and National Identity," Middle East insight 11/5 (July/August 1995); Abdolali Rezaei and Abbas Abdi, eds., Entekhab-e No (Tehran: Tarh-e No, 1998).
2. See Kaveh Ehsani, "Islam, Modernity, and National Identity," Middle East insight 11/5 (July/August 1995); Abdolali Rezaei and Abbas Abdi, eds., Entekhab-e No (Tehran: Tarh-e No, 1998).
3. "Governmentality," a concept about modern governance, includes the processes of understanding and (self) regulating populations. See Graham Burchell, et al, eds. The Foucault Effect (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
4. See David Harvey, Consciousness and the Urban Experience (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
5. See Kaveh Ehsani, "Tilt But Don't Spill: Iran's Development and Reconstruction Dilemma," Middle East Report 191 (1993), pp.16-21.
6. Qolamhossein Karbaschi and several other sub-mayors of Tehran were arrested in 1998 on charges of corruption. Despite the revelation that some had been tortured to elicit confessions, the appeal process was rejected and several, including Karbaschi, were sent to jail in Spring 1999. Karbaschi's televised trial became the most closely watched television program in Iran, seriously undermining the legitimacy of the Judiciary (see Azadeh Niknam's article in this issue). It was widely perceived that Karbaschi was being punished for his open support of Mohammad Khatam's presidential bid against the regime's candidate, House Speaker Nateq-Nuri.
7. Space considerations preclude a full analysis of Tehran's growing suburbs, satellites and new planned cities.
8. During the period under discussion, the (unofficial) exchange rate has fluctuated between 90-850 tooman to one US dollar.
9. According to Morteza Tabatabaee, former mayor of Tehran, the city's subsidized budget was twice the combined annual budgets of Khorasan and Western Azerbaijan, two of Iran's largest provinces. See Ettelaat Siasi-Eatesadi 24 (1989), p. 62.
10. Hamshahri, Ketab-e Sal 1376 (Tehran: Hamshahri Publications, 1999) p. 405.
11. Qolamhossein Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va Defa' (Tehran: Farhang-o Andisheh, 1998), p. 150. At the unofficial exchange rate of the time, this would have been worth approximately US$20 billion.
12. Tehran Municipality, Tahavol-e Edari dar Shahr-e Tehran (Tehran, 1997); and Mirahmad Amirshahi, et al., "Eslah-e Modiryat-e Bakhsh-e Omoumi,"in Hamshahri Ketab-e Sal 1376, op. cit., p.402. Some 80 percent of the workforce was passed on to private, semi-private joint ventures and subcontractors. The Municipality subdivided its many units, and administered these according to commercial and financially autonomous principles. Karbaschi and his supporters, including Rafsanjani, have emphasized that the Municipality's success was due to the cadre of competent top managers. Therefore, attacking the Municipality's record was tantamount to attacking competent managers.
13. Tehran Municipality, Tahavol-e Edari dar Shahr-e Tehran (Tehran, 1997); and Mirahmad Amirshahi, et al., "Eslah-e Modiryat-e Bakhsh-e Omoumi,"in Hamshahri Ketab-e Sal 1376, op. cit., p.402. Some 80 percent of the workforce was passed on to private, semi-private joint ventures and subcontractors. The Municipality subdivided its many units, and administered these according to commercial and financially autonomous principles. Karbaschi and his supporters, including Rafsanjani, have emphasized that the Municipality's success was due to the cadre of competent top managers. Therefore, attacking the Municipality's record was tantamount to attacking competent managers.
14. Until 1997 there was an average annual growth rate of 32 percent, with the share of development budgets remaining between 63-83 percent of total budget. Center for Budget and Statistics, Tehran Municipality, various years.
15. The other quarter comes from municipal facilities, traffic violations and taxes on commercial establishments.
16. Qolamhossein Karbaschi, Akharin Defa' (Tehran: Farhang-o Andisheh, 1998), pp. 185, 187; Tehran Municipality, Tahavol-e Edari dar Shahr-e Tehran (1997), pp. 124-38; Hamshahri, February 2, 1999 and May 3, 1999.
17. Qolamhossein Karbaschi, Akharin Defa' (Tehran: Farhang-o Andisheh, 1998), pp. 185, 187; Tehran Municipality, Tahavol-e Edari dar Shahr-e Tehran (1997), pp. 124-38; Hamshahri, February 2, 1999 and May 3, 1999.
18. Qolamhossein Karbaschi, Akharin Defa' (Tehran: Farhang-o Andisheh, 1998), pp. 185, 187; Tehran Municipality, Tahavol-e Edari dar Shahr-e Tehran (1997), pp. 124-38; Hamshahri, February 2, 1999 and May 3, 1999.
19. Karbaschi, Akharin Defa', op. cit., p. 183.
20. Sohrab Mashhoudi, "Boland martabeh sazi dar Tehran" Me'mari va Shahrsazi 36/37 (1998), p. 109-7; and Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va Defa', op. cit, p.322-9.
21. Sohrab Mashhoudi, "Boland martabeh sazi dar Tehran" Me'mari va Shahrsazi 36/37 (1998), p. 109-7; and Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va Defa', op. cit, p.322-9.
22. Karbaschi, Akharin Defa', op.cit., pp. 182-3. A questionable argument, since supply has never approximated real demand estimates, while prices have continued to climb above the reach of ordinary citizens.
23. Ministry of Housing and Urbanism, Tarh-e Majmou-e Shahri Tehran va Shahrha-ye Atraf-e An (Tehran: 1998); Eqtesad-e Iran 4 (1999), pp. 49-51.
24. Ministry of Housing and Urbanism, Tarh-e Majmou-e Shahri Tehran va Shahrha-ye Atraf-e An (Tehran: 1998); Eqtesad-e Iran 4 (1999), pp. 49-51.
25. Babak Dorbeygui, "Forushgah haye Zanjireyi-e Refah," Goft-o-Gu 13 (1997), p. 23.
26. See Tehran Municipality, Ostokhanbandi-e Shahr-e Tehran (Tehran, 1997), three volumes; Masserat Amir-Ebrahimi, "L'image socio-geographique de Teheran en 1986," in C. Adle and B. Hourcade, eds., Teheran: Capital Bicentenaire (Paris & Tehran: IFRI), pp. 267-80. By "north Tehran," I mean wards 1-8 of the city, above the east-west axis of Azadi-Enqelab avenues. This is only a rough division, given the great diversity of the city's different regions.
27. See Tehran Municipality, Ostokhanbandi-e Shahr-e Tehran (Tehran, 1997), three volumes; Masserat Amir-Ebrahimi, "L'image socio-geographique de Teheran en 1986," in C. Adle and B. Hourcade, eds., Teheran: Capital Bicentenaire (Paris & Tehran: IFRI), pp. 267-80. By "north Tehran," I mean wards 1-8 of the city, above the east-west axis of Azadi-Enqelab avenues. This is only a rough division, given the great diversity of the city's different regions.
28. Hamshahri, February 22,1999. Invoking the right of eminent domain, the Municipality purchased adjacent properties at good market value. To fund the project, the city forged a partnership with banks and the public, issuing public bonds at 20 percent interest. To attract local participation, it gave local residents and bondholders priority rights to purchase the improved properties. See Payam-e Emrooz, "Owraq-e Mosharekat Melli: Ebham dar Qavanin Ebham dar Ejra'," 15 (1997), p. 26.
29. Hamshahri, February 22,1999. Invoking the right of eminent domain, the Municipality purchased adjacent properties at good market value. To fund the project, the city forged a partnership with banks and the public, issuing public bonds at 20 percent interest. To attract local participation, it gave local residents and bondholders priority rights to purchase the improved properties. See Payam-e Emrooz, "Owraq-e Mosharekat Melli: Ebham dar Qavanin Ebham dar Ejra'," 15 (1997), p. 26.
30. The link between the inter-factional political conflict and the urban economy has been made explicit by both the Pragmatic and the Left factions. See Morteza Alviri, "Karbaschi's trial harmed the economy by 700BT," Tous, May 24,1998 (in Persian). Alviri, a vice president at the time, has replaced Karbaschi as mayor of Tehran. See also Neshat, May 4, 1999; and Karbaschi, Akharin Defa', op. cit., pp. 180-3.
31. The link between the inter-factional political conflict and the urban economy has been made explicit by both the Pragmatic and the Left factions. See Morteza Alviri, "Karbaschi's trial harmed the economy by 700BT," Tous, May 24,1998 (in Persian). Alviri, a vice president at the time, has replaced Karbaschi as mayor of Tehran. See also Neshat, May 4, 1999; and Karbaschi, Akharin Defa', op. cit., pp. 180-3.
32. The link between the inter-factional political conflict and the urban economy has been made explicit by both the Pragmatic and the Left factions. See Morteza Alviri, "Karbaschi's trial harmed the economy by 700BT," Tous, May 24,1998 (in Persian). Alviri, a vice president at the time, has replaced Karbaschi as mayor of Tehran. See also Neshat, May 4, 1999; and Karbaschi, Akharin Defa', op. cit., pp. 180-3.
33. Whereas apartment prices decreased by 1.5 percent in 1998 (a rarity in this chronically high demand sector), the satellite city of Karaj experienced a rise of 8-18 percent. In Tehran itself, however, the effects were markedly uneven. Wards 1 and 3, the most affluent northern wards, experienced a -0.3 percent fall, while southern wards 15-17 saw an increase in apartment prices of 7-15 percent, indicating a much steadier real estate market.
34. By eliminating most middlemen, these produce outlets soon dominated more than 63 percent of the daily market, as their prices were 30-50 percent lower than those of shopkeepers and independent merchants. See Hamshahri, Ketab-e Sal 1376, op. cit., pp. 718-21.
35. They were not far off the mark. This was the title of an article in Hamshahri, January 30, 1995, at the height of the raging debate about the topic in the press.
36. "It was evident that the planned establishment of chain stores, a necessity in modern urban life, was an essential political instrument for the government to control the price and distribution network of commodities, one of the most important elements of social and political stability." Babak Dorbeygui, "Forushgah-haye Zanjire-yee Refah," Goft-o-Gu 13 (1996), p.24.
37. See Ketab-e Sal 1376, op. cit., pp. 708-11. Karbaschi offered the city's garbage collectors regular monthly medical checkups and other benefits, as well as annual dinner parties at five-star hotels. This constituted yet another charge of extravagance at his trial. See Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va defa', op. cit., p. 151. See also Hamshahri, February 21,1999; Sobh-e Emrouz, February 16,1999; and Tehran Municipality, Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize (Tehran, 1996).
38. See Ketab-e Sal 1376, op. cit., pp. 708-11. Karbaschi offered the city's garbage collectors regular monthly medical checkups and other benefits, as well as annual dinner parties at five-star hotels. This constituted yet another charge of extravagance at his trial. See Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va defa', op. cit., p. 151. See also Hamshahri, February 21,1999; Sobh-e Emrouz, February 16,1999; and Tehran Municipality, Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize (Tehran, 1996).
39. See Ketab-e Sal 1376, op. cit., pp. 708-11. Karbaschi offered the city's garbage collectors regular monthly medical checkups and other benefits, as well as annual dinner parties at five-star hotels. This constituted yet another charge of extravagance at his trial. See Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va defa', op. cit., p. 151. See also Hamshahri, February 21,1999; Sobh-e Emrouz, February 16,1999; and Tehran Municipality, Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize (Tehran, 1996).
40. See Ketab-e Sal 1376, op. cit., pp. 708-11. Karbaschi offered the city's garbage collectors regular monthly medical checkups and other benefits, as well as annual dinner parties at five-star hotels. This constituted yet another charge of extravagance at his trial. See Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va defa', op. cit., p. 151. See also Hamshahri, February 21,1999; Sobh-e Emrouz, February 16,1999; and Tehran Municipality, Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize (Tehran, 1996).
41. See Ketab-e Sal 1376, op. cit., pp. 708-11. Karbaschi offered the city's garbage collectors regular monthly medical checkups and other benefits, as well as annual dinner parties at five-star hotels. This constituted yet another charge of extravagance at his trial. See Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va defa', op. cit., p. 151. See also Hamshahri, February 21,1999; Sobh-e Emrouz, February 16,1999; and Tehran Municipality, Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize (Tehran, 1996).
42. See Tehran Municipality, Tahavol-e Edari dar Shahr-e Tehran (Tehran, 1997), pp. 130-34; and Tehran Municipality, Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize, op. cit.
43. See Tehran Municipality, Tahavol-e Edari dar Shahr-e Tehran (Tehran, 1997), pp. 130-34; and Tehran Municipality, Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize, op. cit.
44. Examples may include airways where information is disseminated, parks where different social groups intermingle, squares where protests take place, sidewalks where fashions and behaviors are displayed and imitated, neighborhoods where local identities and loyalties are shaped, cultural centers where art and culture are experienced and appreciated, or meeting halls where citizens argue about urban policies. As in all discussions of public space I am indebted here to Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961). On the loss of American public space to private corporate capital see Margaret Crawford's seminal essay, "The world in a shopping mall," in Michael Sorkin, ed., Variations on a Theme Park (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992).
45. Examples may include airways where information is disseminated, parks where different social groups intermingle, squares where protests take place, sidewalks where fashions and behaviors are displayed and imitated, neighborhoods where local identities and loyalties are shaped, cultural centers where art and culture are experienced and appreciated, or meeting halls where citizens argue about urban policies. As in all discussions of public space I am indebted here to Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961). On the loss of American public space to private corporate capital see Margaret Crawford's seminal essay, "The world in a shopping mall," in Michael Sorkin, ed., Variations on a Theme Park (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992).
46. It houses exhibition halls, theaters, concert halls, restaurants, cafes, a library, a gymnasium, sauna, swimming pool, chess rooms, museums, classrooms and a skating rink.
47. In contrast with barricaded and ghettoized public spaces in American cities, such as Los Angeles or New York. See Mike Davis' analysis of the belligerent public architecture of Los Angeles, especially chapter 3 of City of Quartz (London: Verso, 1990).
48. Including another 8 major Cultural Complexes, 46 smaller "Neighborhood Culture Houses", 21 Art Centers and galleries, and 21 public libraries.
49. The adjacent southern city wards 17, 18 and 19 have the youngest populations in Tehran (35 percent of the total population are students). See Alireza Shayanmard, Ettelaat Eqtesadi va Ejtema'i Iran va Jahan (Tehran: Avay-e Nour, 1998).
50. Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize, op. cit.; Hamshahri, "Bahman Culture Complex, Special Issue" (in Persian), n.d. A fascinating study of the BCC argues that "Bahman's greatest impact has been on the lives of women of the city's south. Women of this area were leading more secluded lives within the home...Life outside the house and neighborhood was considered impermissible. As a result, their work and leisure were confined to housework or "traditional activities' with the family, relatives, and neighbors. Movement elsewhere in the city was permissible only with a valid reason, or if accompanied by the man of the house...These limitations extended to work outside the home as well....With the establishment of culture complexes across the city, and especially in the south...the way was opened for women to participate in modern urban social life without being forced to leave their family space," see Masserat Amir-Ebrahimi, "The Impact of Bahman Cultural Complex on the Social and Cultural Life of Tehran's Women and Youth," Goft-o-Gu 9 (Fall 1995), pp. 23-4 (in Persian).
51. Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize, op. cit.; Hamshahri, "Bahman Culture Complex, Special Issue" (in Persian), n.d. A fascinating study of the BCC argues that "Bahman's greatest impact has been on the lives of women of the city's south. Women of this area were leading more secluded lives within the home...Life outside the house and neighborhood was considered impermissible. As a result, their work and leisure were confined to housework or "traditional activities' with the family, relatives, and neighbors. Movement elsewhere in the city was permissible only with a valid reason, or if accompanied by the man of the house...These limitations extended to work outside the home as well....With the establishment of culture complexes across the city, and especially in the south...the way was opened for women to participate in modern urban social life without being forced to leave their family space," see Masserat Amir-Ebrahimi, "The Impact of Bahman Cultural Complex on the Social and Cultural Life of Tehran's Women and Youth," Goft-o-Gu 9 (Fall 1995), pp. 23-4 (in Persian).
52. Unesco Mayor for Peace Prize, op. cit.; Hamshahri, "Bahman Culture Complex, Special Issue" (in Persian), n.d. A fascinating study of the BCC argues that "Bahman's greatest impact has been on the lives of women of the city's south. Women of this area were leading more secluded lives within the home...Life outside the house and neighborhood was considered impermissible. As a result, their work and leisure were confined to housework or "traditional activities' with the family, relatives, and neighbors. Movement elsewhere in the city was permissible only with a valid reason, or if accompanied by the man of the house...These limitations extended to work outside the home as well....With the establishment of culture complexes across the city, and especially in the south...the way was opened for women to participate in modern urban social life without being forced to leave their family space," see Masserat Amir-Ebrahimi, "The Impact of Bahman Cultural Complex on the Social and Cultural Life of Tehran's Women and Youth," Goft-o-Gu 9 (Fall 1995), pp. 23-4 (in Persian).
53. Ibid., pp. 24-5.
54. See, for example, Faramarz Rafipoor, Tose'eh va Tazad (Tehran: Enteshar Publishers, 1998), p. 255.
55. See Jacques Donzelot, La police des familles (Paris: Minuit, 1977), and Wilhelm Reich, Sex-Pol (New York: Random House, 1972).
56. See Jacques Donzelot, La police des familles (Paris: Minuit, 1977), and Wilhelm Reich, Sex-Pol (New York: Random House, 1972).
57. Sohrab Mashhoudi, "Boland Martabe Sazi dar Tehran," op. cit., p.110; and the journal Abadi's "Special Issue on High Rises," 5/18 (Fall 1995).
58. Sohrab Mashhoudi, "Boland Martabe Sazi dar Tehran," op. cit., p.110; and the journal Abadi's "Special Issue on High Rises," 5/18 (Fall 1995).
59. Tehran Municipality, Karname Shahrdari (Tehran, various years); Mojtaba Taleqani, "Shahrha-ye Jadid dar Arse Reqabat," Abadi 29/31 (Spring 1999), p 8. Despite this boom, the vast majority of buildings are still between four to six stories. In 1997, only 0.2 percent of all properties in Tehran were over 10 stories high, making the city one of the flattest metropolises in the world. See the special issue of the journal Shahrsazi va Me'mari 36/37 (1998), p.109; Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va Defa', op. cit., p. 331.
60. Tehran Municipality, Karname Shahrdari (Tehran, various years); Mojtaba Taleqani, "Shahrha-ye Jadid dar Arse Reqabat," Abadi 29/31 (Spring 1999), p 8. Despite this boom, the vast majority of buildings are still between four to six stories. In 1997, only 0.2 percent of all properties in Tehran were over 10 stories high, making the city one of the flattest metropolises in the world. See the special issue of the journal Shahrsazi va Me'mari 36/37 (1998), p.109; Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va Defa', op. cit., p. 331.
61. Tehran Municipality, Karname Shahrdari (Tehran, various years); Mojtaba Taleqani, "Shahrha-ye Jadid dar Arse Reqabat," Abadi 29/31 (Spring 1999), p 8. Despite this boom, the vast majority of buildings are still between four to six stories. In 1997, only 0.2 percent of all properties in Tehran were over 10 stories high, making the city one of the flattest metropolises in the world. See the special issue of the journal Shahrsazi va Me'mari 36/37 (1998), p.109; Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va Defa', op. cit., p. 331.
62. Tehran Municipality, Karname Shahrdari (Tehran, various years); Mojtaba Taleqani, "Shahrha-ye Jadid dar Arse Reqabat," Abadi 29/31 (Spring 1999), p 8. Despite this boom, the vast majority of buildings are still between four to six stories. In 1997, only 0.2 percent of all properties in Tehran were over 10 stories high, making the city one of the flattest metropolises in the world. See the special issue of the journal Shahrsazi va Me'mari 36/37 (1998), p.109; Karbaschi, Mohakemeh va Defa', op. cit., p. 331.