So what really is the problem about corruption?

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 491-502

  Theobald, Robin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CORRUPTION;

EID: 0033396317     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599913640     Document Type: Article

References (63)

1. C Leys, 'What is the problem about corruption?', The Journal of Modern African Studies, 3(2), 1965, pp 215-224.
2. R Wraith & E Simpkins, Corruption in Developing Countries, London: Alien and Unwin, 1963.
3. A list of writers in whose analyses the term has occupied a central role would, to say the least, be lengthy. For useful general surveys sec M Bratton & N van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa. Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997;
4. and P D Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and cronies in the Philippine state: the politics of patrimonial plunder", World Politics, XXXXIII, 1993, pp 414-450.
5. M Weber, Economy and Society, Vol 2, New York: Bedminster Press, 1968, pp 968-1015.
6. J-F Mcdard, "The historical trajectories of the Ivorian and Kenyan states', in J Manor (ed), Rethinking Third World Politics, London: Longman, 1991, pp 185-212.
7. For a typical statement of the alleged functionality of the old city machines, see J C Scott, 'Corruption, machine politics and political change', American Political Science Review, 63(4), 1969, pp 1142-1159.
8. See, for example, J Chubb, 'The social bases of an urban political machine: the Christian Democrat Party in Palermo', in S N Eiscnstadt & R Lcmarch (cds), Political Clicntelism, Patronage and Development, London: Sage, 1981, pp 91-124;
9. and R Theobald, 'On the survival of patronage in developed societies', Archives Européennes de Sociologie, XXXIII, 1992, pp 183-191.
10. See, for example, II Crouch, 'Patrimonialism and military rule in Indonesia', World Politics, 41(4), 1979, pp 571-587;
11. R Roctt, Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society, New York: Pracger, 1992;
12. M C Newbury, 'Dead and buried or just underground? The privatisation of the state in Zaire', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 18(1), 1984, pp 112-114;
13. and W Zartman (ed), Collapsed Stales: the disintegration and restoration of legitimate authority, London: Lynne Ricnncr, 1995.
14. The problem of nepotism in the public sectors of less developed states and the necessity of reducing it figures prominently in current policies of reform. See especially World Bank, World Development Report 1997. The Slate in a Changing World, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997;
15. and R Klitgaard, 'Cleaning up and invigorating the civil service', Public Administration and Development, 17, 1997, pp 487-509.
16. P Schmitter, 'Still the century of corporatism", Revie\v of Politics, 36, 1974, pp 85-121.
17. For critical views of the applicability of 'corporatism' to Latin America, see L A Hammergrcn, 'Corporatism in Latin American politics: a re-examination of the "unique" tradition', Comparative Politics, 9, 1977, pp 443-461;
18. and II Schamis, 'Rcconceptualising Latin American authoritarianism in the 1970s: from bureaucratic authoritarianism to ncoconscrvatism', Comparative Politics, 23(2), 1991, pp 201-220.
19. See, for example, K P Erickson, 'Corporatism and labour in development', in IIJ Rosenbaum & W G Tyler (eds), Contemporary Brazil: issues in economic and political development. New York: Pracger, 1972;
20. and P Schmilter, 'The 'Portugalisation' of Brazil?' in A Steppan (ed), Authoritarian Brazil, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973.
21. Roctt, Brazil.
22. Sec M Grindle, Bureaucrats, Politicians and Peasants in Mexico, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1977.
23. Sec, for example, M-F Toinet & I Glcnn, 'Clientclism and corruption in the 'open' society: the case of the United States', in C Clapham (ed), Private Patronage and Public Power, London: Frances Pintcr, 1982, pp 193-213.
24. See also P C Light, 'Federal ethics controls: the role of inspectors general', in II G Fredcrickson (ed), Ethics and Public Administration, London: M E Sharpe, 1993, pp 100-120. Light notes that 'with political appointees now moving ... five steps down into the bureaucratic hierarchy-and with no prospect that Congress or the president will act to stem the tide, the IG [Inspectors General] concept may be ihc last best hope for a durable counterweight to the short-term thinking that often prevails among political appointees' ( 118).
25. Sec especially T M Callaghy, 'Politics and vision in Africa: the interplay of domination, equality and liberty', in P Chabal (cd), Political Domination in Africa: Reflections on the Limits of Power, London: Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp 30-51.
26. G O'Donncll, Modernization and Burcaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973.
27. Sec, for example, A Hennessy, 'Fascism and populism in Latin America', in W Laqueur (ed). Fascism: a Reader's Guide, London: Penguin, 1976, pp 248-299.
28. In addition to Hammergrcn, 'Corporatism in Latin American Polities', see especially \V Little, 'Political corruption in Latin America', Corruption and Reform, 7, 1992, pp 41-66: "The problem of undcrfunding of key state agencies is acute throughout Latin America and is clearly evident in the fiscal sphere. The capacity to raise tax lies at the core of the state's power ... and is clearly rudimentary in much of Latin America. Argentina is a case in point. There the revenue departments arc understaffed, badly-paid and demoralized. They have no coherent data bases, no modern technology, conduct few audits, detect little evasion, and fail to successfully prosecute the few they do detect.' (p 58)
29. See also Callaghy's comments on Latin America, 'Politics and vision in Africa', p 40, 'Nowhere are constitutions more elaborate and less observed'.
30. Sec especially J D Powell, 'Peasant society and clientelist polities', American Political Science Review, LXIV, 1970, pp 411-425;
31. and A Wcingrod, 'Patrons, patronage and political parties', Comparative Studies in Society and History, VII, 1968, pp 377-400.
32. J Pitt-Rivers, People of the Sierra, London: Wcidenfeld and Nicolson, 1954.
33. R Lcmarchand & K Lcgg, 'Political clicntclism and development: a preliminary analysis', Comparative Politics, IV, 1972, pp 149-179.
34. See also J Boisscvain, 'When the saints go marching out. Reflections on the decline of patronage in Malta', in E Gcllncr & J Watcrbury (eds), Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies, London: Duckworth, 1977, pp 329-342.
35. Probably the best-known statement of this line of argument is in C Kerr et al. Industrialism and Industrial Man, London: Penguin, 1962.
36. For an excellent recent survey which highlights the salience of patronage and cronyism in developed states, sec II Pcrkin, The Third Revolution: Professional Elites in the Modern World, London: Routlcdge, 1996.
37. For copious examples of cronyism in US politics, see H Smith, The Power Game. How Washington Works, New York: Random House, 1988: 'It [ic one-to-one lobbying] is Bob Strauss's note to Treasury Secretary Jim Baker to help a friend seek appointment to the World Bank. It is Howard Baker's contact with an old Senate colleague to see that some client gets a break on the "transition rules" of a tax bill. It is Bob Gray's phone call to the White House to ask the president to address some convention or wangle an invitation to a state dinner for an industrial bigshot. It is breakfast with a committee staff director who is drafting intricate legislation. It is little favours such as tickets to a Washington Redskins football game or helping Ed Mcese's wife get a job. It is knowing which buttons to push.' (p 232)
38. See, for example, L I Rudolph & S H Rudolph, 'Authority and power in bureaucratic and patrimonial administration: a revisionist interpretation of Weber on bureaucracy'. World Politics, XXI(2), 1979, pp 195-227.
39. For the world of top managers, see also R Jackall, Moral Mazes. The World of Corporate Managers, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
40. See especially M Eve, 'Comparing Italy: the case of corruptionin D Forgacs & R Lumley (eds), Italian Cultural Studies: an Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp 34-51. Eve convincingly demonstrates that the widely accepted dichotomy between allegedly particularistic and patronage-ridden Italian society on the one hand, and so-called universalistic England on the other, is significantly overdrawn. Sec also the substantial body of literature in the general area of the sociology of organisations both public and private, eg
41. M Dalton, Men Who Manage, New York: John Wiley, 1959;
42. A Downs, Inside Bureaucracy, Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1967; and
43. M I Reed, The Sociology of Organizations, London: HarvcsterWheatsheaf, 1992. Whereas Bratton & van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa, p 62, locate personal relations on the 'margins' of bureaucratic systems, these latter writers (as well as numerous others) sec them as the core of modem formal organisations.
44. See especially M Punch, Dirty Business, London: Sage, 1996.
45. On the limitations on decision making in organisations, see especially J March & II Simon, Organizations, Oxford: Blackwcll, 1993;
46. and C E Lindblom, 'The science of "muddling through" ', Public Administration Review, 39, 1979, pp 517-526. On the alleged rationality of 'modern' organisations, one might have anticipated this to be most pronounced in the case of international banks, with their highly developed accounting systems. Yet, when we reflect upon the lending policies of several world leaders in the field during recent years, it is hard to disagree with J K Galbraith's conclusion that such institutions seem to have been driven primarily by a combination of 'greed and sophisticated stupidity'. On the significance of 'cronyism' in high-level financial transactions in the West,
47. see J Plcnder, 'Western Crony Capitalism', Financial Times, 3 October 1998;
48. and B Cumings, 'The Korean crisis and the end of late development, New Left Review, 231, 1998, pp 43-72, csp p 58.
49. In addition to Jackall, Moral Mazes,
50. sec A M Pcttigrcw, The Awakening Giant: Change and Continuity at ICI, Oxford: Blackwcll, 1985; and
51. M I Reed, The Sociology of Management, London: Harvester-Wheatsheaf, 1989.
52. Accordingly, in contemporary literature on administrative reform there is a heavy emphasis upon an adequate and stable salary structure. See, for example, World Bank, World Development Report 1997; and
53. Klitgaard, 'Cleaning up and immigrating the civil service'.
54. Sec also F Stapcnhurst & P Langseth, "The role of the public administration in fighting corruption", International} ournal of Public Sector Management, 10 (5), 1997, pp 311-330.
55. See especially B G Peters, The Politics of Bureaucracy, London: Longman, 1995; and
56. J B Christoph, "The remaking of British administrative culture', Administration and Society, 24(2), 1992, pp 163-181.
57. 'Rotten Bananas', Guardian Weekly, 5 October 1997.
58. R W Cox has observed that, 'as the proportion of state revenue going into debt service rises, governments have become more effectively accountable to external bond markets than to their own publics'. Cox, 'Global restructuring: making sense of the changing international political economy', in R Stubbs & G R D Underbill (cds), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order, London: Macmillan, 1994, pp 45-59.
59. See also J Nef, who maintains that for much of Latin America, 'the slate has become the receiver and debt collector of a bankrupt economy on behalf of translational creditors'. Nef, ' "Normalization": popular struggles and the receiver state', in J Knippers Black (cd), Latin America, its Problems and its Promise: a Multidisciplinary Introduction, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991.
60. Nef is quoted by M T Berger, 'The end of the "Third World"?', Third World Quarterly, 15(2), 1994, p 268.
61. 'World cities are the keyboard of the global economy.' Cox, 'Global restructuring', p 47.
62. 'Global warning: cities harm people", Guardian Weekly, 16 June 1996.
63. 'Rural poor are overtaken by urban underclass', Guardian Weekly, 20 December 1998.