Trading in slaves in Bela-Shangul and Gumuz, Ethiopia: Border enclaves in history, 1897-1938

Journal of African History

Volumn 40, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 433-446

  Ahmad, Abdussamad H ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

IMPERIALISM; POLITICAL HISTORY; SLAVE;

ETHIOPIA;

EID: 0033380047     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0021853799007458     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. See, for example, Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, 1983); Paul E. Lovejoy and Jan S. Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897-1936 (Cambridge, 1993); Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters : Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein, 'Slavery in Colonial Africa,' special issue, Slavery and Abolition, 19(1998), 1-272.
2. See, for example, Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, 1983); Paul E. Lovejoy and Jan S. Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897-1936 (Cambridge, 1993); Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters : Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein, 'Slavery in Colonial Africa,' special issue, Slavery and Abolition, 19(1998), 1-272.
3. See, for example, Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, 1983); Paul E. Lovejoy and Jan S. Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897-1936 (Cambridge, 1993); Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters : Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein, 'Slavery in Colonial Africa,' special issue, Slavery and Abolition, 19(1998), 1-272.
4. See, for example, Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, 1983); Paul E. Lovejoy and Jan S. Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897-1936 (Cambridge, 1993); Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters : Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein, 'Slavery in Colonial Africa,' special issue, Slavery and Abolition, 19(1998), 1-272.
5. Ato Alämu Agäñähu (75 years old) interviewed at Yajjube on 21-22 Aug. 1979; Ato Asräs Yänesäw (84) interviewed at Däbrä Marqos on 14-15 Aug. 1979; Fitawrari Algamar Hamdan Abu Shok (50), governor of Gubba until 1991, interviewed at Addis Ababa on 27-28 Feb. 1982; Ato Mäkuriya Bizunäh (55) and Grazmach Taddässä Jämbäre (57) interviewed on 1-3 Sept. 1979 at Chagni town in Gumuz country; and Sheikh Abd al Wahid Yussuf (82), Ato Harun Sosso (90) and Ato Muhammad al-Hassan (68), interviewed at Qush-Mängäl 18 km to the west of Asossa on 30 March 1998. I am grateful to Ato Ibrahim Muhammad for the translation of the interviews from the Arabic to Amharic. Letter of Emperor Minilik II to Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan, 30 Aug. 1898. See also Emilio De Bono, Anno XIIII: The Conquest of an Empire (London, 1937), 252. I am grateful to Mr David Chapple, Department of History, Addis Ababa University, for reading and comments.
6. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Harun Sosso and Muhammad al-Hassan. See also Rashed Mohammad, 'A biography of Däjjazmach Abdulrahim Khojele' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1995), 1-3. Margery Perham, The Government of Ethiopia (Evanston, 1969), 326-7.
7. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Harun Sosso and Muhammad al-Hassan. See also Rashed Mohammad, 'A biography of Däjjazmach Abdulrahim Khojele' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1995), 1-3. Margery Perham, The Government of Ethiopia (Evanston, 1969), 326-7.
8. Ibid. National Record Office, Khartoum (hereafter NRO) Blue Nile Province, 1/27/202, FP/31/A16, 'The Dinder Reserve', 64. Upper Nile Province 1/12/104, A. J. Arkell, District Commissioner, Southern District, 'Subject: Slave Trade Between Abyssinia and the Sudan', 29 Apr. 1928.
9. Jay Spaulding, 'Slavery, land tenure and social class in the northern Turkish Sudan', The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 8-9. Janet J. Ewald, 'The Nile Valley system and the Red Sea slave trade 1820-1880', in William Gervase Clarence-Smith (ed.), The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1989), 72-83.
10. Jay Spaulding, 'Slavery, land tenure and social class in the northern Turkish Sudan', The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 8-9. Janet J. Ewald, 'The Nile Valley system and the Red Sea slave trade 1820-1880', in William Gervase Clarence-Smith (ed.), The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1989), 72-83.
11. Richard Hill, On the Frontiers of Islam: The Sudan Under Turco-Egyptian Rule, 1822-1843 (Oxford, 1970), 115-6, 183.
12. P. M. Holt, The Mahdist State in the Sudan, 1881-1898 (Oxford, 1977), 47.
13. Philip D. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge, 1984), 240. For an account of the battle of Karari, see Ismat Hasan Zulfo (Peter Clark, trans.), Karari: the Sudanese Account of the Battle of Omdurman (London, 1980).
14. Philip D. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge, 1984), 240. For an account of the battle of Karari, see Ismat Hasan Zulfo (Peter Clark, trans.), Karari: the Sudanese Account of the Battle of Omdurman (London, 1980).
15. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/62/435, G. M. Hancock, 'Sudan Abyssinian Border', 26/10/1941, 2. Regarding the languages spoken by the Gumuz and Bertha, see M. Lionel Bender, The Ethiopian Nilo-Saharan (Addis Ababa, 1975), 61; A. Triulzi, A. A. Dafallah, and M. L. Bender, 'Bertha', in M. L. Bender (ed.), The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia (East Lansing, 1976), 513-32.
16. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/62/435, G. M. Hancock, 'Sudan Abyssinian Border', 26/10/1941, 2. Regarding the languages spoken by the Gumuz and Bertha, see M. Lionel Bender, The Ethiopian Nilo-Saharan (Addis Ababa, 1975), 61; A. Triulzi, A. A. Dafallah, and M. L. Bender, 'Bertha', in M. L. Bender (ed.), The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia (East Lansing, 1976), 513-32.
17. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/62/435, G. M. Hancock, 'Sudan Abyssinian Border', 26/10/1941, 2-3.
18. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Harun Sosso and Muhammad al-Hassan. Gäbrä Sillassie, Tarikä Zämän Zä-Dagmawi Minilik Nigusä Nägäst Zä-Ityopya (Addis Ababa, 1959, Ethiopian calendar), 285. Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1974 (London, 1991), 66. For the life of Sheikh Khojele, see Atieb Ahmed Dafallah, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan and Bela-Shangul (1825-1938)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1973).
19. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Harun Sosso and Muhammad al-Hassan. Gäbrä Sillassie, Tarikä Zämän Zä-Dagmawi Minilik Nigusä Nägäst Zä-Ityopya (Addis Ababa, 1959, Ethiopian calendar), 285. Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1974 (London, 1991), 66. For the life of Sheikh Khojele, see Atieb Ahmed Dafallah, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan and Bela-Shangul (1825-1938)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1973).
20. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Harun Sosso and Muhammad al-Hassan. Gäbrä Sillassie, Tarikä Zämän Zä-Dagmawi Minilik Nigusä Nägäst Zä-Ityopya (Addis Ababa, 1959, Ethiopian calendar), 285. Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1974 (London, 1991), 66. For the life of Sheikh Khojele, see Atieb Ahmed Dafallah, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan and Bela-Shangul (1825-1938)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1973).
21. Ato Al-Mamun Ahmad (72) and Sheikh Babäkir Ahmad (58), interviewed at Asossa on 31 March 1998. I am indebted to Ato Al-Qurayish Ahmad for translation from the Arabic to Amharic. Harold G. Marcus, The Life and Times of Menelik II Ethiopia, 1844-1913 (Oxford, 1975), 190. Zervos, L'empire d'Ethiopie, 333-4.
22. Ato Al-Mamun Ahmad (72) and Sheikh Babäkir Ahmad (58), interviewed at Asossa on 31 March 1998. I am indebted to Ato Al-Qurayish Ahmad for translation from the Arabic to Amharic. Harold G. Marcus, The Life and Times of Menelik II Ethiopia, 1844-1913 (Oxford, 1975), 190. Zervos, L'empire d'Ethiopie, 333-4.
23. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Algamar Hamdan, Harun Sosso and Muhammad al-Hassan. Taj Hargey, 'The supression of slavery in the Sudan 1898-1939' (Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1981), 59. Public Record Office (PRO), Foreign Office, London (FO): 403/275, Rodd to the Marquess of Salisbury, Aug. 1898. NRO Intelligence 2/18/151, Armbruster's Report on his 1908 Mission to Abyssinia, 105. Täklä Iyyäsus, Yä Ityopia Tarik: Nigus Täklä-Haymanot, ms 254, Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, folio 106.
24. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Algamar Hamdan, Harun Sosso and Muhammad al-Hassan. Taj Hargey, 'The supression of slavery in the Sudan 1898-1939' (Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1981), 59. Public Record Office (PRO), Foreign Office, London (FO): 403/275, Rodd to the Marquess of Salisbury, Aug. 1898. NRO Intelligence 2/18/151, Armbruster's Report on his 1908 Mission to Abyssinia, 105. Täklä Iyyäsus, Yä Ityopia Tarik: Nigus Täklä-Haymanot, ms 254, Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, folio 106.
25. For the Fung kings of Sennar, see Jay Spaulding, The Heroic Age in Sennar (East Lansing, 1985), 21-38.
26. PRO, FO 371/20940 J2157/2157/1, Abyssinia Confidential, 'Records of Leading Personalities in Abyssinia', 4 May 1937, 5. The orders of his ancestors were: Wawirt, Hamad, Hasan, Muhammad Nur, Ibrahim, Abu Shok and Hamdan; see PRO, FO 371/15389 84783, R. E. Cheesman, 'The Abbay: Second Reconnaissance Via Wambara and Roseires', Confidential, 1929, 46. See also Peter P. Garreston,' Manjil Hamdan Abu Shok (1898-1938) and the administration of Gubba', in Joseph Tubiana (ed.), Modern Ethiopia: From the Accession of Menelik II to the Present (Rotterdam, 1980), 197-210.
27. PRO, FO 371/20940 J2157/2157/1, Abyssinia Confidential, 'Records of Leading Personalities in Abyssinia', 4 May 1937, 5. The orders of his ancestors were: Wawirt, Hamad, Hasan, Muhammad Nur, Ibrahim, Abu Shok and Hamdan; see PRO, FO 371/15389 84783, R. E. Cheesman, 'The Abbay: Second Reconnaissance Via Wambara and Roseires', Confidential, 1929, 46. See also Peter P. Garreston,' Manjil Hamdan Abu Shok (1898-1938) and the administration of Gubba', in Joseph Tubiana (ed.), Modern Ethiopia: From the Accession of Menelik II to the Present (Rotterdam, 1980), 197-210.
28. Mahtämä-Sillassie Wäldä Mäsqäl, Zikrä Nägär (Addis Ababa, 1962, Ethiopian calendar), 164. See also Wendy James, 'Lifelines: exchange marriage among the Gumuz', in Donald Donham and Wendy James (eds.), The Southern Marches of Imperial Ethiopia (Cambridge, 1986), esp. 122.
29. Mahtämä-Sillassie Wäldä Mäsqäl, Zikrä Nägär (Addis Ababa, 1962, Ethiopian calendar), 164. See also Wendy James, 'Lifelines: exchange marriage among the Gumuz', in Donald Donham and Wendy James (eds.), The Southern Marches of Imperial Ethiopia (Cambridge, 1986), esp. 122.
30. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/27/202, L. F. Nalder, 'The Fung: Tribal and Political', 1929-30, 8. Blue Nile Province, 1/62/435, G. M. Hancock, 'Sudan Abyssinian Border', 26/10/1941, 2. For the dubious status of Bela-Shangul and Gubba, see Bahru Zewde, 'Relations between Ethiopia and the Sudan on the western Ethiopian frontier 1898-1935' (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1976), 83-4.
31. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/27/202, L. F. Nalder, 'The Fung: Tribal and Political', 1929-30, 8. Blue Nile Province, 1/62/435, G. M. Hancock, 'Sudan Abyssinian Border', 26/10/1941, 2. For the dubious status of Bela-Shangul and Gubba, see Bahru Zewde, 'Relations between Ethiopia and the Sudan on the western Ethiopian frontier 1898-1935' (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1976), 83-4.
32. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/27/202, L. F. Nalder, 'The Fung: Tribal and Political', 1929-30, 8. Blue Nile Province, 1/62/435, G. M. Hancock, 'Sudan Abyssinian Border', 26/10/1941, 2. For the dubious status of Bela-Shangul and Gubba, see Bahru Zewde, 'Relations between Ethiopia and the Sudan on the western Ethiopian frontier 1898-1935' (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1976), 83-4.
33. Ato Abdisa Wäräqa (75), Ato Abdella Shita (26), Ato Adam Abul-Hassan (45), Ato Bänti Ahmad (30), Ato Matewos Bältaj (35), Wäyzäro Momina Harun (28) and Ato Muhammad Yilbi (74), interviewed at Tongo town in Mao territory, 2 April 1998. I am grateful to Ato Abd al-Qadir Angäre for translation of the interviews from Afan Oromo to Amharic. It is worth noting that the Mao are bilingual, speaking Mao and Afan Oromo. For a report of anthropological fieldwork among the Mao of Gidami and Anfillo areas, see Vinigi Grottanelli, I Mao: Missione Etnografica nel Uollega Occidentalle (Rome, 1940); and Harold C. Fleming, 'The importance of Mao in Ethiopian history', in Sven Rubenson (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Uppsala, 1984), 1-38. Regarding the Khoma, see Samuel Burns and C. J. Guth, 'Koma language', mimeograph (n.d.) available at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 1; Ernesta Cerulli, Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and Its Borderland (London, 1956), 12, 13, 17, 20. Enrico Cerulli, Etiopia Occidental (Rome, 1933), II, 87-91. Tesema Ta'a, 'The Oromo of Wollega: a historical survey to 1910' (M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1980), 77. For a biography of Däjjazmach Jote Tulu, see Bahru Zewde, 'Dejazmach Jote Tulu (1855-1918)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1970).
34. Ato Abdisa Wäräqa (75), Ato Abdella Shita (26), Ato Adam Abul-Hassan (45), Ato Bänti Ahmad (30), Ato Matewos Bältaj (35), Wäyzäro Momina Harun (28) and Ato Muhammad Yilbi (74), interviewed at Tongo town in Mao territory, 2 April 1998. I am grateful to Ato Abd al-Qadir Angäre for translation of the interviews from Afan Oromo to Amharic. It is worth noting that the Mao are bilingual, speaking Mao and Afan Oromo. For a report of anthropological fieldwork among the Mao of Gidami and Anfillo areas, see Vinigi Grottanelli, I Mao: Missione Etnografica nel Uollega Occidentalle (Rome, 1940); and Harold C. Fleming, 'The importance of Mao in Ethiopian history', in Sven Rubenson (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Uppsala, 1984), 1-38. Regarding the Khoma, see Samuel Burns and C. J. Guth, 'Koma language', mimeograph (n.d.) available at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 1; Ernesta Cerulli, Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and Its Borderland (London, 1956), 12, 13, 17, 20. Enrico Cerulli, Etiopia Occidental (Rome, 1933), II, 87-91. Tesema Ta'a, 'The Oromo of Wollega: a historical survey to 1910' (M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1980), 77. For a biography of Däjjazmach Jote Tulu, see Bahru Zewde, 'Dejazmach Jote Tulu (1855-1918)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1970).
35. Ato Abdisa Wäräqa (75), Ato Abdella Shita (26), Ato Adam Abul-Hassan (45), Ato Bänti Ahmad (30), Ato Matewos Bältaj (35), Wäyzäro Momina Harun (28) and Ato Muhammad Yilbi (74), interviewed at Tongo town in Mao territory, 2 April 1998. I am grateful to Ato Abd al-Qadir Angäre for translation of the interviews from Afan Oromo to Amharic. It is worth noting that the Mao are bilingual, speaking Mao and Afan Oromo. For a report of anthropological fieldwork among the Mao of Gidami and Anfillo areas, see Vinigi Grottanelli, I Mao: Missione Etnografica nel Uollega Occidentalle (Rome, 1940); and Harold C. Fleming, 'The importance of Mao in Ethiopian history', in Sven Rubenson (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Uppsala, 1984), 1-38. Regarding the Khoma, see Samuel Burns and C. J. Guth, 'Koma language', mimeograph (n.d.) available at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 1; Ernesta Cerulli, Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and Its Borderland (London, 1956), 12, 13, 17, 20. Enrico Cerulli, Etiopia Occidental (Rome, 1933), II, 87-91. Tesema Ta'a, 'The Oromo of Wollega: a historical survey to 1910' (M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1980), 77. For a biography of Däjjazmach Jote Tulu, see Bahru Zewde, 'Dejazmach Jote Tulu (1855-1918)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1970).
36. Ato Abdisa Wäräqa (75), Ato Abdella Shita (26), Ato Adam Abul-Hassan (45), Ato Bänti Ahmad (30), Ato Matewos Bältaj (35), Wäyzäro Momina Harun (28) and Ato Muhammad Yilbi (74), interviewed at Tongo town in Mao territory, 2 April 1998. I am grateful to Ato Abd al-Qadir Angäre for translation of the interviews from Afan Oromo to Amharic. It is worth noting that the Mao are bilingual, speaking Mao and Afan Oromo. For a report of anthropological fieldwork among the Mao of Gidami and Anfillo areas, see Vinigi Grottanelli, I Mao: Missione Etnografica nel Uollega Occidentalle (Rome, 1940); and Harold C. Fleming, 'The importance of Mao in Ethiopian history', in Sven Rubenson (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Uppsala, 1984), 1-38. Regarding the Khoma, see Samuel Burns and C. J. Guth, 'Koma language', mimeograph (n.d.) available at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 1; Ernesta Cerulli, Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and Its Borderland (London, 1956), 12, 13, 17, 20. Enrico Cerulli, Etiopia Occidental (Rome, 1933), II, 87-91. Tesema Ta'a, 'The Oromo of Wollega: a historical survey to 1910' (M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1980), 77. For a biography of Däjjazmach Jote Tulu, see Bahru Zewde, 'Dejazmach Jote Tulu (1855-1918)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1970).
37. Ato Abdisa Wäräqa (75), Ato Abdella Shita (26), Ato Adam Abul-Hassan (45), Ato Bänti Ahmad (30), Ato Matewos Bältaj (35), Wäyzäro Momina Harun (28) and Ato Muhammad Yilbi (74), interviewed at Tongo town in Mao territory, 2 April 1998. I am grateful to Ato Abd al-Qadir Angäre for translation of the interviews from Afan Oromo to Amharic. It is worth noting that the Mao are bilingual, speaking Mao and Afan Oromo. For a report of anthropological fieldwork among the Mao of Gidami and Anfillo areas, see Vinigi Grottanelli, I Mao: Missione Etnografica nel Uollega Occidentalle (Rome, 1940); and Harold C. Fleming, 'The importance of Mao in Ethiopian history', in Sven Rubenson (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Uppsala, 1984), 1-38. Regarding the Khoma, see Samuel Burns and C. J. Guth, 'Koma language', mimeograph (n.d.) available at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 1; Ernesta Cerulli, Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and Its Borderland (London, 1956), 12, 13, 17, 20. Enrico Cerulli, Etiopia Occidental (Rome, 1933), II, 87-91. Tesema Ta'a, 'The Oromo of Wollega: a historical survey to 1910' (M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1980), 77. For a biography of Däjjazmach Jote Tulu, see Bahru Zewde, 'Dejazmach Jote Tulu (1855-1918)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1970).
38. Ato Abdisa Wäräqa (75), Ato Abdella Shita (26), Ato Adam Abul-Hassan (45), Ato Bänti Ahmad (30), Ato Matewos Bältaj (35), Wäyzäro Momina Harun (28) and Ato Muhammad Yilbi (74), interviewed at Tongo town in Mao territory, 2 April 1998. I am grateful to Ato Abd al-Qadir Angäre for translation of the interviews from Afan Oromo to Amharic. It is worth noting that the Mao are bilingual, speaking Mao and Afan Oromo. For a report of anthropological fieldwork among the Mao of Gidami and Anfillo areas, see Vinigi Grottanelli, I Mao: Missione Etnografica nel Uollega Occidentalle (Rome, 1940); and Harold C. Fleming, 'The importance of Mao in Ethiopian history', in Sven Rubenson (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Uppsala, 1984), 1-38. Regarding the Khoma, see Samuel Burns and C. J. Guth, 'Koma language', mimeograph (n.d.) available at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 1; Ernesta Cerulli, Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and Its Borderland (London, 1956), 12, 13, 17, 20. Enrico Cerulli, Etiopia Occidental (Rome, 1933), II, 87-91. Tesema Ta'a, 'The Oromo of Wollega: a historical survey to 1910' (M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1980), 77. For a biography of Däjjazmach Jote Tulu, see Bahru Zewde, 'Dejazmach Jote Tulu (1855-1918)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1970).
39. Ato Abdisa Wäräqa (75), Ato Abdella Shita (26), Ato Adam Abul-Hassan (45), Ato Bänti Ahmad (30), Ato Matewos Bältaj (35), Wäyzäro Momina Harun (28) and Ato Muhammad Yilbi (74), interviewed at Tongo town in Mao territory, 2 April 1998. I am grateful to Ato Abd al-Qadir Angäre for translation of the interviews from Afan Oromo to Amharic. It is worth noting that the Mao are bilingual, speaking Mao and Afan Oromo. For a report of anthropological fieldwork among the Mao of Gidami and Anfillo areas, see Vinigi Grottanelli, I Mao: Missione Etnografica nel Uollega Occidentalle (Rome, 1940); and Harold C. Fleming, 'The importance of Mao in Ethiopian history', in Sven Rubenson (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Uppsala, 1984), 1-38. Regarding the Khoma, see Samuel Burns and C. J. Guth, 'Koma language', mimeograph (n.d.) available at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, 1; Ernesta Cerulli, Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and Its Borderland (London, 1956), 12, 13, 17, 20. Enrico Cerulli, Etiopia Occidental (Rome, 1933), II, 87-91. Tesema Ta'a, 'The Oromo of Wollega: a historical survey to 1910' (M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1980), 77. For a biography of Däjjazmach Jote Tulu, see Bahru Zewde, 'Dejazmach Jote Tulu (1855-1918)' (B. A. thesis, Addis Ababa University, 1970).
40. Interviews: Abd al Wahid Yussuf, Abdisa Wäräqa, Harun Sosso, Muhammad al-Hassan and Muhammad Yilbi. Letter of Emperor Minilik II to Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan, 7 July 1908. See also Atieb, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan', 42.
41. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Abdisa Wäräqa and Muhammad Yilbi. See also Atieb, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan', 51.
42. NRO Upper Nile Province, 1/12/104, 'Notes on a Meeting Held at Roseires', 19/4/1928. The Sudanese and Egyptian pounds were based on the pound sterling, but were divided into 100 piasters and 1,000 millièmes respectively.
43. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Abdissa Wäräqa, Harun Sosso and Muhammad al-Hassan. See also Atieb, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan', 54.
44. Atieb, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan', 16-17; Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 149, 351; PRO, FO 371/16996 J1891/429/1, Lord Noel Buxton to Mr Peterson, 24 July 1933, 2. See also Perham, Government of Ethiopia, 326-7, 360.
45. Atieb, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan', 16-17; Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 149, 351; PRO, FO 371/16996 J1891/429/1, Lord Noel Buxton to Mr Peterson, 24 July 1933, 2. See also Perham, Government of Ethiopia, 326-7, 360.
46. Atieb, 'Sheikh Khojele al-Hassan', 16-17; Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 149, 351; PRO, FO 371/16996 J1891/429/1, Lord Noel Buxton to Mr Peterson, 24 July 1933, 2. See also Perham, Government of Ethiopia, 326-7, 360.
47. PRO, FO 371/12344, A. D. Home, 2 May 1927. Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 150.
48. NRO Upper Nile Province, 1/12/104, R. K. Winter, Acting Civil Secretary for Governor of Fung Province, Khartoum, 30 June 1927. Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 149.
49. Interviews: Algamar Hamdan and Mäkuriya Bizunäh.
50. PRO, FO 371/20940 J2157/2157/1, Abyssinia Confidential, 'Records of Leading Personalities in Abyssinia', 4 May 1937, 5. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/27/202, FP/31/A/6,
51. 'The Dinder Reserve', 69.
52. Garreston, 'Manjil Hamdan Abu Shok', 203.
53. For the concept and discussions of Ethiopian feudalism, see Addis Hiwet, Ethiopia : From Autocracy to Revolution (Occasional Publication, no. 1, Review of African Political Economy, London, 1975), 3-4;
54. and Donald Crummey, 'Abyssinian feudalism', Past and Present, 89(1980), 115-38.
55. PRO, FO 371/15389 84783, R. E. Cheesman, 'The Abbay: Second Reconnaissance via Wambara and Roseires', Confidential, 1929, 39.
56. Garreston, 'Manjil Hamdan Abu Shok', 205.
57. NRO Intelligence, 1/16/75, Sudan Abysssinian Report, Aug. 1918.
58. Leone Zanni, 'La tribu dei Gumus', La Nigrizia, 57 (1939-40), 156.
59. Interviews: Algamar Hamdan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh and Taddässä Jämbäre.
60. NRO Intelligence, 6/5/18, Sudan Intelligence Report no. 169, 'Mr. Armbruster's Report on His Recent Journey in Abyssinia', Aug. 1908, 47.
61. PRO, FO 371/1294 71463, Major Doughty Wylie to Sir Edward Grey, East Africa, Confidential, 5.
62. NRO Intelligence 2/19/157, Maralai, Governor of Kassala Province.
63. NRO Intelligence, 2/22/175, Lewa, Governor of Sennar Province, 13 Jan. 1920.
64. NRO Intelligence, 1/5/19, A. D. Home, British Consulate Office at Dangila, 'Intelligence Notes Abyssinia', no. 148 Secret, 31 July 1982, 3. PRO, FO 371/16096, no. 8, Confidential, Consul R. E. Cheesman to Sir S. Barton, 20 May 1932, 91-2.
65. NRO Intelligence, 1/5/20, A. D. Home, Northwest Abyssinia Intelligence Notes, 24 Feb. 1925. Maria Theresa thalers will hereafter be referred to as thalers.
66. NRO Intelligence, 1/5/20, A. D. Home, British Consul at Dangila, 15 Aug. 1925.
67. NRO Intelligence 6/5/18, Sudan Intelligence Report no. 169, Mr Armbruster's Report on His Recent Journey in Abyssinia, Aug. 1908, 49. Interview: Algamar Hamdan.
68. They belonged to the following sections: Dabanja, Daboda, Damachogo, Damagat, Datobi, Degana, Dugma, Naseih and Zateih.
69. NRO 4 Kassala, 1/26/150, Civil Secretary's Office, Sudan Government, Khartoum to Acting Civil Secretary, S. Hillilim, 7 Sept. 1929.
70. NRO 4 Kassala, 1/26/150, Civil Secretary's Office, Sudan government, Khartoum to Acting Civil Secretary, S. Hillilim, 7 Sept. 1929.
71. NRO Sudan Intelligence Report, no. 84, 1 to 31 July 1901., 5. Interview: Algamar Hamdan.
72. Ibid. 46 Ibid. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/27/202, FP/31/A/6, 'The Dinder Reserve', 69.
73. Interviews: Algamar Hamdan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh and Taddässä Jämbäre. PRO, FO 371/16096 J2090/3/1, Consul Cheesman to Sir S. Barton, no. 8, Confidential, 20 May 1932, 92.
74. Interviews: Algamar Hamdan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh and Taddässä Jämbäre.
75. Hargey, 'Supression of slavery', 139.
76. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/27/202, FP/31/A/6, 'The Dinder Reserve', 76.
77. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/27/202, The Civil Secretary, 'Subject: Registration of Slaves', Sennar Province, 30 Sept. 1912, 2.
78. NRO Intelligence, 2/20/166, Kaimakam, Assistant Director of Intelligence to the Private Secretary, 25 Nov. 1917.
79. NRO Intelligence, 2/20/166, Lewa, Governor of Sennar Province to the Assistant Director of Intelligence, 'Subject: Gumuz Refugees', 17 Nov. 1917.
80. NRO Intelligence, 2/20/168, Mr. A. W. Skrine D. C. (n.d.).
81. Interviews: Algamar Hamdan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh and Taddässä Jämbäre. Zanni, 'La Tribu dei Gumus', 156.
82. Interviews: Algamar Hamdan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh and Taddässä Jämbäre. See also Zervos, L'empire d'Ethiopie, 50-3.
83. PRO, FO 371/16096 J1081/3/1, Lord Noel Buxton and Lord Polwarth, 'Report on Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society of Abyssinia', 20 Apr. 1932, 5. See also Antoinette Iadarola, 'Ethiopia's admission into the League of Nations: an assessment of motives', The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 8 (1975), 601-22.
84. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/28/211, the General Act of Brussels Conference of 1888-90, Article 1.
85. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/29/214, No. CS/60/A/6, Civil Secretary, Khartoum to the Governor of Fung Province, Singa, 29 Dec. 1929.
86. For a study of the earlier period, see Richard Pankhurst, 'The history of the Bareya, Shanqella and other Ethiopian slaves from the borderlands of the Sudan', Sudan Notes and Records, 63 (1977), esp. 11-17, 231 Stephen H. Longrigg, A History of Eritrea (Oxford, 1945), 43, 68; and Suzanne Miers, 'Britain and the suppression of slavery in Ethiopia', in Taddesse Beyene (ed.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Addis Ababa, 1989), II, 254-7.
87. For a study of the earlier period, see Richard Pankhurst, 'The history of the Bareya, Shanqella and other Ethiopian slaves from the borderlands of the Sudan', Sudan Notes and Records, 63 (1977), esp. 11-17, 231 Stephen H. Longrigg, A History of Eritrea (Oxford, 1945), 43, 68; and Suzanne Miers, 'Britain and the suppression of slavery in Ethiopia', in Taddesse Beyene (ed.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Addis Ababa, 1989), II, 254-7.
88. For a study of the earlier period, see Richard Pankhurst, 'The history of the Bareya, Shanqella and other Ethiopian slaves from the borderlands of the Sudan', Sudan Notes and Records, 63 (1977), esp. 11-17, 231 Stephen H. Longrigg, A History of Eritrea (Oxford, 1945), 43, 68; and Suzanne Miers, 'Britain and the suppression of slavery in Ethiopia', in Taddesse Beyene (ed.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (Addis Ababa, 1989), II, 254-7.
89. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/62/434, Abyssinia Intelligence, M. S. Lush 1932, 6. P. M. Merab, Impressions d'Ethiopie: L'Abyssinie sous Menelik II (Paris, 1921-1929), Vol. 1, 367; III, 132. Alessandro Triulzi, Salt, Gold and Legitimacy: Prelude to the History of a No-man's Land, Bela Shangul, Wallagga, Ethiopia, ca. 1800-1898 (Napoli, 1981), 2. Richard Pankhurst, Economic History of Ethiopia 1800-1935 (Addis Ababa, 1968), 74.
90. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/62/434, Abyssinia Intelligence, M. S. Lush 1932, 6. P. M. Merab, Impressions d'Ethiopie: L'Abyssinie sous Menelik II (Paris, 1921-1929), Vol. 1, 367; III, 132. Alessandro Triulzi, Salt, Gold and Legitimacy: Prelude to the History of a No-man's Land, Bela Shangul, Wallagga, Ethiopia, ca. 1800-1898 (Napoli, 1981), 2. Richard Pankhurst, Economic History of Ethiopia 1800-1935 (Addis Ababa, 1968), 74.
91. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/62/434, Abyssinia Intelligence, M. S. Lush 1932, 6. P. M. Merab, Impressions d'Ethiopie: L'Abyssinie sous Menelik II (Paris, 1921-1929), Vol. 1, 367; III, 132. Alessandro Triulzi, Salt, Gold and Legitimacy: Prelude to the History of a No-man's Land, Bela Shangul, Wallagga, Ethiopia, ca. 1800-1898 (Napoli, 1981), 2. Richard Pankhurst, Economic History of Ethiopia 1800-1935 (Addis Ababa, 1968), 74.
92. Interviews: Alämu Agäñähu, Asräs Yänesäw, Algamar Hamadan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh and Taddässä Jämbäre.
93. PRO, FO 371 12344, A. D. Home, 2 May 1927. Zervos, L'empire d'Ethiopie, 51; Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 150.
94. PRO, FO 371 12344, A. D. Home, 2 May 1927. Zervos, L'empire d'Ethiopie, 51; Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 150.
95. PRO, FO 371/12344, A. D. Home, 2 May 1927.
96. Frank de Halpert Papers, Rhodes House, Mss. Af. S. 1459 (17).
97. NRO Upper Nile Province, 1/12/104, J-L. Maffey, Governor General of the Sudan to Governor General's Office, Cairo, no. 60/A/19, 24 May 1928. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Algamar Hamdan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh, Muhammad al-Hassan and Taddässa Jämbäre.
98. NRO 4 Kassala, 1/14/82, C. E. Lyall, Governor of Kassala Province to Civil Secretary's Department, Khartoum 'Subject: Refugees from Abyssinia Escaped, Slaves', 27 July 1924; Upper Nile Province, 1/12/104, D. T. Bethell, Acting Governor General to the Civil Secretary Khartoum, 'Slavery in Abyssinia', 15 Dec. 1927.
99. NRO Upper Nile Province, 1/12/104, Governor of Fung Province, Singa, 15 June 1928.
100. Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 149, 351. Perham, Government of Ethiopia, 326-7, 360. PRO, FO 371/16996 J189/429/1, Lord Noel Buxton to Mr Peterson, 24 July 1933, 2.
101. Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 149, 351. Perham, Government of Ethiopia, 326-7, 360. PRO, FO 371/16996 J189/429/1, Lord Noel Buxton to Mr Peterson, 24 July 1933, 2.
102. PRO, FO 371/16996 J331/1, Sir S. Barton to Sir J. Simon, 'Annual Report, 1932', 12 Jan. 1933, 16.
103. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/29/212, The Kaimakam, Commandant Police of the Blue Nile Province to the Governor of the Blue Nile Province, Wad Medani, 3 Nov. 1928.
104. NRO Blue Nile Province, 1/62/434, M. S. Lush, Abyssinian Intelligence, 32. Interviews: Abd al-Wahid Yussuf, Algamar Hamdan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh, Muhammad al-Hassan and Taddässä Jämbäre.
105. NRO 4 Kassala, 1/14/82, Acting District Commissioner Gedarif, 'Subject: Italo-Abyssinian Affairs Refugees', no. G.D./SCR. 95 E-3/2, 11 Sept. 1935. Interviews: Algamar Hamdan and Mäkuriya Bizunäh.
106. Interviews: Algamar Hamdan, Mäkuriya Bizunäh and Taddässä Jämbäre. See also De Bono, Anno XIIII, 252.
107. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery; Cooper, Slaves to Squatters.
108. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery; Cooper, Slaves to Squatters.
109. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery; Cooper, Slaves to Squatters.
110. Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 358. Miers, 'Britain and the suppression of slavery in Ethiopia', 260.
111. Hargey, 'Suppression of slavery', 358. Miers, 'Britain and the suppression of slavery in Ethiopia', 260.