Becoming human: The origins and development of women's human rights

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 21, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 853-906

  Fraser, Arvonne S ^a,b,c,d,e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^b Intl Women's Rights Action Watch P ^*

^c Ctr Women Pub Plcy at the Inst

^d UN Commission on the Status of Women

^e U States Agy for Intl Development   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GENDER RELATIONS; HUMAN RIGHTS; LEGISLATION; WOMENS STATUS;

EID: 0033376478     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.1999.0050     Document Type: Article

References (244)

1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess. (Resolutions, part 1), at 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. SUPP. 127 (1949) [hereinafter UDHR].
2. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess. (Resolutions, part 1), at 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. SUPP. 127 (1949) [hereinafter UDHR].
3. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, adopted 18 Dec. 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980) (entered into force 3 Sept. 1981), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW].
4. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, adopted 18 Dec. 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980) (entered into force 3 Sept. 1981), reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW].
5. JOHN STUART MILL, THE SUBJECTION OF WOMEN (M.I.T. Press 1970) (1869).
6. See id.
7. The term ignorance is used here in its original sense, that of something being unknown.
8. GERDA LERNER, THE CREATION OF FEMINIST CONSCIOUSNESS: FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO EIGHTEEN-SEVENTY 12 (1993).
9. MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN (Source Book Press 1971) (1792).
10. CHRISTINE DE PIZAN, THE BOOK OF THE CITY OF LADIES (Earl Jeffrey Richards trans., Persea Books 1982) (1405).
11. JOAN KELLY, WOMEN, HISTORY AND THEORY 65-66 (1984).
12. JOHN BARTLETT, BARTLETT'S FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS 651 (9th ed. 1901) (quoting an unindentified fragment).
13. U.N. CHARTER pmbl., signed 26 June 1945, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. No. 993, 3 Bevans 1153 (entered into force 24 Oct. 1945).
14. See generally UDHR, supra note 1.
15. See generally ARVONNE S. FRASER, LOOKING TO THE FUTURE: EQUAL PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN IN THE 21ST CENTURY (1983).
16. CEDAW, supra note 2.
17. Id.
18. DE PIZAN, supra note 8.
19. GIOVANNI BOCCACIO, CONCERNING FAMOUS WOMEN (Guido A. Guarino trans., Rutgers University Press 1963) (1361).
20. Guido A. Guarino, Introduction to CONCERNING FAMOUS WOMEN, supra note 17, at xxxviii.
21. See generally id.
22. The term "demeaned" was used frequently before the word "discrimination" was popularized.
23. Marina Warner, Foreword to DE PIZAN, supra note 8.
24. LERNER, supra note 6, at 261.
25. KELLY, supra note 9, at 65-66.
26. MARIE LE JARS DE GOURNAY, EGALITÉ DES HOMMES ET DES FEMMES [EQUALITY OF MEN AND WOMEN] (Librairie Droz 1993) (1641).
27. See id.
28. ANNA MARIA VON SCHURMAN, THE LEARNED MAID; OR, WHETHER A MAID MAY BE A SCHOLAR (n.p. 1659).
29. APHRA BEHN, THE FORC'D MARRIAGE, OR THE JEALOUS BRIDEGROOM (1671), microformed on Early English Books, 1641-1700; 446:1 (Univ. Microfilms).
30. MARY ASTELL, A SERIOUS PROPOSAL TO THE LADIES, FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF THEIR TRUE AND GREATEST INTEREST, PARTS I & II (Patricia Springborg ed., Pickering & Chatto 1997) (1694 & 1697).
31. See DALE SPENDER, WOMEN OF IDEAS (AND WHAT MEN HAVE DONE TO THEM) (1982).
32. See id.
33. LADY MARY WORTLEY MONTAGU, THE NONSENSE OF COMMON SENSE, 1737-1738 (Robert Halsband ed., 1947).
34. See generally 3 A HISTORY OF WOMEN IN THE WEST: RENAISSANCE AND ENLIGHTENMENT PARADOXES (Georges Duby & Michelle Perrot general eds., Natalie Zemon Davis & Arlette Farge eds., 1993); ELLEN MOERS, LITERARY WOMEN (1976); BONNIE S. ANDERSON & JUDITH P. ZINSSER, A HISTORY OF THEIR OWN: WOMEN IN EUROPE FROM PREHISTORY TO THE PRESENT (1988); LERNER, supra note 6, at 205-6.
35. See generally 3 A HISTORY OF WOMEN IN THE WEST: RENAISSANCE AND ENLIGHTENMENT PARADOXES (Georges Duby & Michelle Perrot general eds., Natalie Zemon Davis & Arlette Farge eds., 1993); ELLEN MOERS, LITERARY WOMEN (1976); BONNIE S. ANDERSON & JUDITH P. ZINSSER, A HISTORY OF THEIR OWN: WOMEN IN EUROPE FROM PREHISTORY TO THE PRESENT (1988); LERNER, supra note 6, at 205-6.
36. See generally 3 A HISTORY OF WOMEN IN THE WEST: RENAISSANCE AND ENLIGHTENMENT PARADOXES (Georges Duby & Michelle Perrot general eds., Natalie Zemon Davis & Arlette Farge eds., 1993); ELLEN MOERS, LITERARY WOMEN (1976); BONNIE S. ANDERSON & JUDITH P. ZINSSER, A HISTORY OF THEIR OWN: WOMEN IN EUROPE FROM PREHISTORY TO THE PRESENT (1988); LERNER, supra note 6, at 205-6.
37. See AMY SCHRAGER LANG, PROPHETIC WOMAN: ANNE HUTCHINSON AND THE PROBLEM OF DISSENT IN THE LITERATURE OF NEW ENGLAND (1987). See also SELMA R. WILLIAMS, DIVINE REBEL: THE LIFE OF ANNE MARBURY HUTCHINSON (1981).
38. See AMY SCHRAGER LANG, PROPHETIC WOMAN: ANNE HUTCHINSON AND THE PROBLEM OF DISSENT IN THE LITERATURE OF NEW ENGLAND (1987). See also SELMA R. WILLIAMS, DIVINE REBEL: THE LIFE OF ANNE MARBURY HUTCHINSON (1981).
39. WILLIAMS, supra note 33, at 149 (quoting Governor Winthrop's opening statement against Hutchinson at her trial).
40. See generally id. at 180 (citing A Report of the Trial of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson Before the Church in Boston, 1638, 4 MASS. HIST. SOC'Y (2d ser. 1889)).
41. WOLLSTONECRAFT, supra note 7.
42. MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION OF DAUGHTERS: WITH REFLECTIONS ON FEMALE CONDUCT IN THE MORE IMPORTANT DUTIES OF LIFE (Microfilm Corp. of America 1980) (1787).
43. MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARY (Janet Todd ed., N.Y.U. Press 1992) (1788).
44. EDMUND BURKE, REFLECTIONS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND OTHER ESSAYS (E.P. Dutton & Co. 1920).
45. MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MEN (1791), reprinted in ELEANOR FLEXNER, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT: A BIOGRAPHY (1972).
46. MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MEN (1791), reprinted in ELEANOR FLEXNER, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT: A BIOGRAPHY (1972).
47. JEAN-ANTOINE-NICOLAS DE CARITAT CONDORCET, THE FIRST ESSAY ON THE POLITICAL RIGHTS OF WOMEN: A TRANSLATION OF CONDORCET'S ESSAY "SUR L'ADMISSION DES FEMMES AU DROIT DE CITE" (Alice Drysdale Vickery trans., Garden City Press 1912) (1787).
48. See SUSAN GROAG BELL & KAREN M. OFFEN, WOMEN, THE FAMILY AND FREEDOM: THE DEBATE IN DOCUMENTS 97-118 (1983).
49. ANDERSON & ZINSSER, supra note 32, at 345, 352.
50. WOLLSTONECRAFT, supra note 7, at 105.
51. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU, A Discourse on Political Economy, in THE SOCIAL CONTRACT AND DISCOURSES (G.D.H. Cole trans., 1913), reprinted in part in HISTORY OF IDEAS ON WOMAN: A SOURCE BOOK 117, 119 (Rosemary Agonito ed., 1977) [hereinafter HISTORY OF IDEAS ON WOMAN].
52. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU, A Discourse on Political Economy, in THE SOCIAL CONTRACT AND DISCOURSES (G.D.H. Cole trans., 1913), reprinted in part in HISTORY OF IDEAS ON WOMAN: A SOURCE BOOK 117, 119 (Rosemary Agonito ed., 1977) [hereinafter HISTORY OF IDEAS ON WOMAN].
53. WOLLSTONECRAFT, supra note 7, at 101 (citing 3 JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU, EMILIUS (A TREATISE OF EDUCATION) 181 (1768)).
54. See ALICE ROSSI, THE FEMINIST PAPERS: FROM ADAMS TO DE BEAUVOIR 10-11 (1973); SALLY SMITH BOOTH, WOMEN OF '76, at 89 (1973).
55. See ALICE ROSSI, THE FEMINIST PAPERS: FROM ADAMS TO DE BEAUVOIR 10-11 (1973); SALLY SMITH BOOTH, WOMEN OF '76, at 89 (1973).
56. PHYLLIS LEE LEVIN, ABIGAIL ADAMS: A BIOGRAPHY (1987).
57. BELL & OFFEN, supra note 42, at 37-41.
58. Id. at 41.
59. English Reform Act of 1832, 2 & 3 Will., ch. 45.
60. See generally MARGARET FORSTER, SIGNIFICANT SISTERS: THE GRASSROOTS OF ACTIVE FEMINISM 1839-1939, at 15-52 (1984).
61. See id.
62. See id. at 46.
63. See id.
64. See, e.g., id. at 47, 48, 51; BELL AND OFFEN, supra note 42, at 22 (highlighting the Divorce Act of 1857, the Married Women's Property Act of 1870, and its successor act of 1882, three acts that changed the legal position of married women in England); 4 A HISTORY OF WOMEN IN THE WEST: EMERGING FEMINISM FROM REVOLUTION TO WORLD WAR 97-113 (Georges Duby & Michelle Perrot general eds., Genevieve Fraisse & Michelle Perrot eds., 1993).
65. Married Woman's Property Act of 1882, 45 & 46 Vict., ch. 75.
66. See MILL, supra note 3.
67. BELL & OFFEN, supra note 42, at 392.
68. MILL, supra note 3, reprinted in part in HISTORY OF IDEAS ON WOMAN, supra note 45, at 225, 243.
69. BELL & OFFEN, supra note 42, 398-99.
70. Id. at 362.
71. Id. at 28.
72. HARRIETT BEECHER STOWE, UNCLE TOM'S CABIN, OR LIFE AMONG THE LOWLY (Macmillan Publ'g Co. 1994) (1852).
73. MOERS, supra note 32, at 39 (quoting Eliot).
74. GEORGE ELIOT, DANIEL DERONDA (Penguin Books 1986) (1876).
75. ELIZABETH CLEGHORN GASKELL, MARY BARTON: A TALE OF MANCHESTER LIFE (Oxford Univ. Press 1987) (1848).
76. MOERS, supra note 32, at 23.
77. See id. at 23.
78. ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE, DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA (J.P. Mayer & Max Lerner eds. & George Lawrence trans., Harper & Row 1966) (1838).
79. JOSEPH BARRY, INFAMOUS WOMAN: THE LIFE OF GEORGE SAND at xiv (1978).
80. MARGARET FULLER, WOMAN IN THE 19TH CENTURY (Univ. of S.C. Press 1980) (1845).
81. See MOERS, supra note 32, at 20-22. See also id. at 316-17 (for a list of Flora Tristan's publications).
82. Id. at 19.
83. YURI SUHL, ERNESTINE L. ROSE AND THE BATTLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS 149 (1959).
84. Id. at 145-48.
85. ROKEYA SAKHAWAT HOSSAIN, SULTANA'S DREAM AND SELECTIONS FROM THE SECLUDED ONES (Roushan Jahan ed. & trans., Feminist Press 1988) (1905 & 1928-1930).
86. See id.
87. ANGELINA E. GRIMKÉ, AN APPEAL TO THE CHRISTIAN WOMEN OF THE SOUTH (Arno Press 1969) (1836). See generally GERDA LERNER, THE GRIMKÉ SISTERS FROM SOUTH CAROLINA (1967).
88. ANGELINA E. GRIMKÉ, AN APPEAL TO THE CHRISTIAN WOMEN OF THE SOUTH (Arno Press 1969) (1836). See generally GERDA LERNER, THE GRIMKÉ SISTERS FROM SOUTH CAROLINA (1967).
89. See LERNER, supra note 79, at 183.
90. SARAH M. GRIMKÉ, LETTERS ON THE EQUALITY OF THE SEXES AND OTHER ESSAYS (Elizabeth Ann Bartlett ed., Yale Univ. Press 1988).
91. Sarah M. Grimké, Marriage, reprinted in part in GERDA LERNER, THE FEMALE EXPERIENCE: AN AMERICAN DOCUMENTARY 89, 89 (1977).
92. Sarah M. Grimké, Marriage, reprinted in part in GERDA LERNER, THE FEMALE EXPERIENCE: AN AMERICAN DOCUMENTARY 89, 89 (1977).
93. ELISABETH GRIFFITH, IN HER OWN RIGHT: THE LIFE OF ELIZABETH CADY STANTON 38 (1984).
94. Id. at 38 (quoting Stanton).
95. MARI JO & PAUL BUHLE, THE CONCISE HISTORY OF WOMAN SUFFRAGE 94 (1978) (reprinting Stanton's Declaration of Sentiments in toto).
96. See id.
97. See id. at 95.
98. Id.
99. BELL & OFFEN, supra note 42, at 98, 104-09.
100. Comments in a conversation with the author.
101. U.S. CONST. amend. XIX.
102. ELEANOR FLEXNER, CENTURY OF STRUGGLE: THE WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES 120-21 (1974).
103. See id. at 121.
104. Id.
105. 20 U.S.C. § 1681 et seq.
106. RUTH BORDIN, FRANCES WILLARD: A BIOGRAPHY (1986).
107. GRIFFITH, supra note 83, at 193.
108. See Margaret E. Galey, Forerunners in Women's Quest for Partnership, in WOMEN, POLITICS, AND THE UNITED NATIONS 1 (Anne Winslow ed., 1995); RICHARD STITES, THE WOMEN'S LIBERATION MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA (1978).
109. See Margaret E. Galey, Forerunners in Women's Quest for Partnership, in WOMEN, POLITICS, AND THE UNITED NATIONS 1 (Anne Winslow ed., 1995); RICHARD STITES, THE WOMEN'S LIBERATION MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA (1978).
110. GRIFFITH, supra note 83, at 203, 204.
111. Id. at 203 (indicating that the full text of the speech, The Solitude of Self, can be found in THE HISTORY OF WOMAN SUFFRAGE 189-91 (AYER CO. 1985) (Elizabeth Cady Stanton et al. eds., 1881)).
112. See ARNOLD WHITTICK, WOMAN INTO CITIZEN 22, 31 (1979).
113. See id. at 32.
114. Id. at 31-32.
115. See id. at 60. The Alliance was not the only organization that developed an interest in ending white slave traffic (trafficking in women). Following World War I, the Union Française pour le Suffrage des Femmes invited women from Allied countries to help lobby against trafficking in women at the Paris Peace Conference. See id. at 70-71. Resolutions on "the moral, political and educational aspects of women's life" were presented to various commissions of the League of Nations. Id. at 71. The resolutions on moral status included the following objectives: 1. "To suppress the sale of women and children." 2. "To respect and apply the principle of woman's liberty to dispose of herself in marriage." 3. "To suppress the traffic in women, girls, and children of both sexes, and its corollary, the licensed house of ill fame." Id. See also NATALIE KAUFMAN HEVENER, INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE STATUS or WOMEN 10-12, 78-102 (1983) (providing cites for international conventions relating to trafficking in women).
116. CEDAW, supra note 2, arts. 6, 16.
117. FORSTER, supra note 52, at 169-71.
118. Id.
119. See 1 NOTABLE AMERICAN WOMEN, 1607-1950, at 20 (Edward T. James ed., 1971) (providing section on Addams).
120. See WHITTICK, supra note 101, at 70-71.
121. See id. at 72 (stating that Article 7(3) of the Covenant states that "all positions under or in connection with the League, including the secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women"; while Article 23(a) is concerned "with fair and humane conditions of labour for men, women and children" and 23(c) with "the supervision over the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in women and children.").
122. See id. at 75-76 (reprinting the charter).
123. Id. at 75.
124. Id.
125. Id.
126. Id. at 76.
127. See id.
128. See MARGARET SANGER, MARGARET SANGER: AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY 127-28 (1938). See also 13 BIRTH CONTROL REV. 106 (1929) (for information on Besant).
129. See MARGARET SANGER, MARGARET SANGER: AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY 127-28 (1938). See also 13 BIRTH CONTROL REV. 106 (1929) (for information on Besant).
130. 20 U.S.C. § 1462.
131. See ELLEN CHESLER, WOMAN OF VALOR: MARGARET SANGER AND THE BIRTH CONTROL MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 85-86 (1992).
132. See NOTABLE AMERICAN WOMEN: THE MODERN PERIOD: A BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY 623-27 (Barbara Sicherman et al. eds., 1980).
133. See MARIAN J. MORTON, EMMA GOLDMAN AND THE AMERICAN LEFT: "NOWHERE AT HOME" (1992).
134. See generally CANDACE FALK, LOVE, ANARCHY AND EMMA GOLDMAN (1984); MORTON, supra note 121; 2 NOTABLE AMERICAN WOMEN: A BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY 57-59 (E.T. James et al. eds., 1971).
135. See generally CANDACE FALK, LOVE, ANARCHY AND EMMA GOLDMAN (1984); MORTON, supra note 121; 2 NOTABLE AMERICAN WOMEN: A BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY 57-59 (E.T. James et al. eds., 1971).
136. CHESLER, supra note 119, at 97.
137. See FALK, supra note 122, at 221-22.
138. See CHESLER, supra note 119, at 99.
139. MARGARET SANGER, FAMILY LIMITATION (5th ed. rev'd, n.d.) (1914), microformed on History of Women, Reel 962, No. 9989 (Research Publications).
140. MARGARET SANGER, FAMILY LIMITATION (5th ed. rev'd, n.d.) (1914), microformed on History of Women, Reel 962, No. 9989 (Research Publications).
141. Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
142. See PERDITA HUSTON, MOTHERHOOD BY CHOICE: PIONEERS IN WOMEN'S HEALTH AND FAMILY PLANNING 95-106 (1992).
143. Id.
144. Id. at 4.
145. CHESLER, supra note 119, at 357.
146. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
147. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
148. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
149. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
150. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
151. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
152. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
153. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
154. In the United States, a women's club movement, primarily dedicated to self-education and social welfare, had expanded across the country. See THEODORA PENNY MARTIN, THE SOUND OF OUR OWN VOICES: WOMEN'S STUDY CLUBS, 1860-1910 (1987); ANNE FIROR SCOTT, NATURAL ALLIES: WOMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (1991). Social reformers such as Jane Addams, of Hull House in Chicago, had invented social work; Addams later became a force in urban affairs. See ALLEN F. DAVIS, AMERICAN HEROINE: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF JANE ADDAMS (1973); JANE ADDAMS, JANE ADDAMS: A CENTENNIAL READER (1960); JANE ADDAMS, TWENTY YEARS AT HULL-HOUSE (1914). US suffrage leaders ranged from the organizationally minded Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt to the more militant Alice Paul, all of whom were also active internationally. A similar range could be found in England, including the militant Pankhursts. See ELLEN CAROL DUBOIS, FEMINISM AND SUFFRAGE: THE EMERGENCE OF AN INDEPENDENT WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN AMERICA 1848-1869 (1978); CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT & NETTIE ROGERS SHULER, WOMAN SUFFRAGE AND POLITICS: THE INNER STORY OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT (1970); INEZ HAYES GILLMORE, STORY OF ALICE PAUL AND THE NATIONAL WOMAN'S PARTY (1977); ANTONIA RAEBURN, THE SUFFRAGETTE VIEW (1976) (providing information on Pankhurst).
155. See generally HEVENER, supra note 104, at 119, 67-77 (discussing the maternity convention and night work convention respectively).
156. Margaret E. Galey, Women Find a Place, in WOMEN, POLITICS, AND THE UNITED NATIONS, supra note 98, at 11.
157. Four women signed the UN Charter in 1945, among them Minerva Bernardino of the Dominican Republic.
158. Declaration on the Participation of Women in the Work of the United Nations: Report of the General Committee to the General Assembly, U.N. GAOR, 1st Sess., 29th plen. mtg., No. 30, at 527-35, U.N. Doc. A/46 (1946).
159. See GALEY, supra note 134, at 11-12.
160. Interview with Margaret E. Galey (23 June 1997).
161. GALEY, supra note 134, at 13.
162. See id. at 14.
163. Margaret E. Galey, Promoting Nondiscrimination Against Women: The UN Commission on the Status of Women, 23 INT'L STUD. Q. 276 (1979).
164. Working Group on the Declaration of Human Rights, Summary Record of the Second Meeting, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 2d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/AC.2/SR.2 (1947). See also Johannes Morsink, Women's Rights in the Universal Declaration, 13 HUM. RTS. Q. 229 (1991).
165. Working Group on the Declaration of Human Rights, Summary Record of the Second Meeting, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 2d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/AC.2/SR.2 (1947). See also Johannes Morsink, Women's Rights in the Universal Declaration, 13 HUM. RTS. Q. 229 (1991).
166. See Morsink, supra note 142, at 234.
167. Working Group on the Declaration of Human Rights, Summary Report of the Thirty-fourth Meeting, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 2d Sess., at 4, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/ AC.2/SR.34 (1947). See Morsink, supra note 142, at 234.
168. See id.
169. Convention Concerning Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value (ILO No. C100), adopted 29 June 1951 (entered into force 23 May 1953); Recommendation Concerning Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value (ILO No. R90), adopted 29 June 1951.
170. See HEVENER, supra note 104.
171. Convention on the Political Rights of Women, opened for signature 31 Mar. 1953, 27 U.S.T. 1909, T.I.A.S. No. 8289, 193 U.N.T.S. 135 (entered into force 7 July 1954) (entered into force for U.S. 7 July 1976).
172. Convention on the Nationality of Married Women, done 20 Feb. 1957, 309 U.N.T.S. 65 (entered into force 11 Aug. 1958).
173. Convention on the Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and the Registration of Marriages, opened for signature 10 Dec. 1962, 521 U.N.T.S. 231 (entered into force 9 Dec. 1964).
174. See HEVENER, supra note 104, at 165-76.
175. See GALEY, supra note 141, at 278.
176. See GALEY, supra note 134, at 12.
177. Draft Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, G.A. Res. 1921 (XVIII), U.N. GAOR, 18th Sess., 1274th plen. mtg., ¶ 1, 1963 U.N.Y.B. 357, U.N. Doc. A/5606 (1963).
178. Id. ¶ 2.
179. The two are quite different: birth control refers to the means the individual takes to prevent contraception, while family planning connotes a couple's decision-making.
180. See U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/575, at 5, Addendum.
181. 5ee UN Report on the World Social Situation, U.N. Doc. E/CN.5/375 Add. 1 & Add. 2 (1963).
182. See Report of the Third Committee on the Report of the Economic and Social Council, U.N. GAOR 3d Comm., 18th Sess., 1274th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. A/5606 (1963) [hereinafter Report of the Third Committee]; U.N. GAOR, 18th Sess., Supp. No. 15, U.N. Doc. A/5515 (1963).
183. See Report of the Third Committee on the Report of the Economic and Social Council, U.N. GAOR 3d Comm., 18th Sess., 1274th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. A/5606 (1963) [hereinafter Report of the Third Committee]; U.N. GAOR, 18th Sess., Supp. No. 15, U.N. Doc. A/5515 (1963).
184. Participation of Women in National, Social and Economic Development, G.A. Res. 1920 (XVIII), U.N. GAOR, 18th Sess., 1274th plen. mtg., 1963 U.N.Y.B. 357, U.N. Doc. A/5606 (1963) (hereinafter G.A. Res. 1920]. See also Report of the Third Committee, supra note 159, at 2 (stressing "the importance of ensuring greater participation of women in national, social and economic development").
185. G.A. Res. 1920, supra note 160, at ¶ ¶ 1, 2.
186. See UN Commission on the Status of Women: Report of the Eighteenth Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 7, Agenda Item No. 53, at 16, U.N. Doc. E/4025-E/CN.6/422 (1965) (hereinafter Report of the Eighteenth Session].
187. U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 39th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/426, at 5 (1964) (on Afghanistan).
188. Id.
189. See Report of the Third Committee, supra note 159.
190. Report on the Eighteenth Session, supra note 162 at 22, art. 12 (calling on women's organizations to launch a wide-spread educational campaign).
191. Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, G.A. Res. 2263 (XXII), U.N. GAOR, 22d Sess., 1497th plen. mtg., Vol. 1, at 35-37, 1967 U.N.Y.B. 521, U.N. Doc. A/6880 (1967). See also Arvonne S. Fraser, The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (The Women's Convention), in WOMEN, POLITICS, AND THE UNITED NATIONS, supra note 98, at 77.
192. Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, G.A. Res. 2263 (XXII), U.N. GAOR, 22d Sess., 1497th plen. mtg., Vol. 1, at 35-37, 1967 U.N.Y.B. 521, U.N. Doc. A/6880 (1967). See also Arvonne S. Fraser, The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (The Women's Convention), in WOMEN, POLITICS, AND THE UNITED NATIONS, supra note 98, at 77.
193. 20 U.S.C. § 1681 et seq.
194. See International Women's Year, G.A. Res. 3010 (XXVII), U.N. GAOR, 27th Sess., 2113th plen. mtg., 1972 U.N.Y.B. 454, U.N. Doc. A/8928 (1972); Conference of the International Women's Year, G.A. Res. 3276 (XXIX), U.N. GAOR, 29th Sess., 2311th plen. mtg., addendum, 1974 U.N.Y.B. 657, U.N. Doc. A/9829/Add.1 (1974).
195. See International Women's Year, G.A. Res. 3010 (XXVII), U.N. GAOR, 27th Sess., 2113th plen. mtg., 1972 U.N.Y.B. 454, U.N. Doc. A/8928 (1972); Conference of the International Women's Year, G.A. Res. 3276 (XXIX), U.N. GAOR, 29th Sess., 2311th plen. mtg., addendum, 1974 U.N.Y.B. 657, U.N. Doc. A/9829/Add.1 (1974).
196. Id.
197. WHITTICK, supra note 101, at 92.
198. See SARA M. EVANS & HARRY C. BOYTE, FREE SPACES: THE SOURCES OF DEMOCRATIC CHANGE IN AMERICA at vii (1986) (discussing the definition of the "free spaces" idea).
199. See ARVONNE S. FRASER, THE U.N. DECADE FOR WOMEN: DOCUMENTS AND DIALOGUE 17-54 (1987).
200. The author of this article, then US Agency for International Development coordinator of the Office of Women in Development, received reports from mission directors that noted that they saw the symbol posted across remote corners of the developing world.
201. UNITED NATIONS, REPORT OF THE WORLD CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL WOMEN'S YEAR (MEXICO CITY, 19 JUNE-2 JULY 1975), ¶ 6, U.N. Sales No. E.76.IV.1 (1976), reprinted in WOMEN AND WORLD DEVELOPMENT 185-218 (Irene Tinker & Michele Bo Bramsen eds., 1976) [hereinafter World Plan of Action].
202. UNITED NATIONS, REPORT OF THE WORLD CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL WOMEN'S YEAR (MEXICO CITY, 19 JUNE-2 JULY 1975), ¶ 6, U.N. Sales No. E.76.IV.1 (1976), reprinted in WOMEN AND WORLD DEVELOPMENT 185-218 (Irene Tinker & Michele Bo Bramsen eds., 1976) [hereinafter World Plan of Action].
203. Id.
204. Id. ¶ 46.
205. Id. ¶ 48.
206. See id. Paragraph 182 of the World Plan of Action calls for proclaiming the decade; paragraph 198 calls for high priority to be given to the preparation and adoption of the convention on the elimination of discrimination against women, with effective procedures for implementation. Id. ¶ ¶ 182, 198.
207. Id. ¶ 16.
208. In 1975 the editor of WIN NEWS had published a 300-page International Directory of Women's Development Organizations beginning with the Afghan Women's Society and ending with the World Feminist Commission.
209. ESTER BOSERUP, WOMAN'S ROLE IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (1970).
210. Report of the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Copenhagen, Denmark, July 14-30, 1980, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.94/35 [hereinafter Copenhagen Programme of Action].
211. For more on the Copenhagen conference, including the NGO Forum, see FRASER, supra note 173; Jane S. Jaquette, Losing the Battle/Winning the War: International Politics, Women's Issues, and the 1980 Mid-Decade Conference, in WOMEN, POLITICS, AND THE UNITED NATIONS, supra note 98, at 45.
212. Copenhagen Programme of Action, supra note 183, ¶ ¶ 10-16.
213. For a fuller discussion of the drafting and adoption of the Convention, see Fraser, supra note 167. See also Report of the Working Group of the Whole on the Drafting of the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/C.3/34/14 (1979); Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/34/60 (1979); U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Agenda Item 75, U.N. Doc. A/34/PV.107 (1979).
214. For a fuller discussion of the drafting and adoption of the Convention, see Fraser, supra note 167. See also Report of the Working Group of the Whole on the Drafting of the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/C.3/34/14 (1979); Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/34/60 (1979); U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Agenda Item 75, U.N. Doc. A/34/PV.107 (1979).
215. For a fuller discussion of the drafting and adoption of the Convention, see Fraser, supra note 167. See also Report of the Working Group of the Whole on the Drafting of the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/C.3/34/14 (1979); Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/34/60 (1979); U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Agenda Item 75, U.N. Doc. A/34/PV.107 (1979).
216. For details on the Swedish Proposal, see U.N. GAOR 3d Comm., at 10-15, U.M. Doc. A/C.3/34/14 (1979). For discussion of the Convention in the Third Committee, see Report of the Third Committee, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Annexes, Agenda Item 75, at 1 - 10, U.N. Doc. A/34/830. For final debate and adoption in the General Assembly, see U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., 107th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 75, at 1991-1999 (1979).
217. For details on the Swedish Proposal, see U.N. GAOR 3d Comm., at 10-15, U.M. Doc. A/C.3/34/14 (1979). For discussion of the Convention in the Third Committee, see Report of the Third Committee, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Annexes, Agenda Item 75, at 1 - 10, U.N. Doc. A/34/830. For final debate and adoption in the General Assembly, see U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., 107th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 75, at 1991-1999 (1979).
218. See CEDAW, supra note 2.
219. See generally Fraser, supra note 167.
220. See 1 UNITED NATIONS, THE WORK OF CEDAW: REPORTS OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE ELIMINATION OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN, 1982-1985 (1989).
221. For the first time, a number of reports on the NGO conference were published. FORUM '85: Final Report, Nairobi, Kenya was commissioned by the NGO Planning Group for the Forum while Images of Nairobi and Caroline Pezzullo's For the Record . . . Forum '85 were both published by the International Women's Tribune Center in 1986. See also FRASER, supra note 173, at 199.
222. This document was officially known as the United Nations Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Nairobi, 15-26 July 1985, U.N. Doc. A/ CONF.116/27/Rev.1, U.N. Sales No. E.85.IV.10 (1986). It was subtitled The Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women.
223. Id. ¶ 163.
224. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women: General Recommendation No. 12, Violence Against Women (8th Sess. 1989), adopted 3 Mar. 1989, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Supp. No. 38, ¶ ¶ 7-9, 24, U.N. Doc. A/44/38 (1990), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by the Human Rights Treaty-bodies, at 78, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 (1994) [hereinafter Compilation of General Recommendations].
225. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women: General Recommendation No. 12, Violence Against Women (8th Sess. 1989), adopted 3 Mar. 1989, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Supp. No. 38, ¶ ¶ 7-9, 24, U.N. Doc. A/44/38 (1990), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by the Human Rights Treaty-bodies, at 78, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 (1994) [hereinafter Compilation of General Recommendations].
226. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women: General Recommendation No. 19, Violence Against Women (11th Sess. 1992), adopted 30 Jan. 1992, U.N. GAOR, 47th Sess., Supp. No. 38, U.N. Doc. A/47/38 (1993), reprinted in Compilation of General Recommendations, supra note 194, at 84.
227. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women: General Recommendation No. 19, Violence Against Women (11th Sess. 1992), adopted 30 Jan. 1992, U.N. GAOR, 47th Sess., Supp. No. 38, U.N. Doc. A/47/38 (1993), reprinted in Compilation of General Recommendations, supra note 194, at 84.
228. See U.N. Doc. CEDAW/1992/L.1/Add.15 (1992). See also International Women's Rights Action Watch, Report on CEDAW Session 11, Aug. 1992, available from International Women's Rights Action Watch (visited 19 July 1999).
229. This expert group meeting was only one result of ECOSOC Resolution 1984/14 of 24 May 1984 on violence against women that allowed the Branch for the Advancement of Women to expand work on the subject. Violence in the Family, E.S.C. Res. 1984/14, U.N. ESCOR, 19 plen. mtg. (1984).
230. See, e.g., WOMEN'S WATCH (the quarterly newsletter of the International Women's Rights Action Watch) (for a sampling of these publications).
231. U.N. CENTRE FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS, VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN THE FAMILY, U.N. Doc. ST/CSDHA/2, U.N. Sales No. E.89.IV.5 (1989).
232. Id. at 3.
233. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.L.M. 1661 (1993).
234. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.L.M. 1661 (1993).
235. Id. ¶ 18.
236. Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted 15 Sept. 1995, U.N. GAOR, ch. III, ¶ ¶ 41-44, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995).
237. Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted 15 Sept. 1995, U.N. GAOR, ch. III, ¶ ¶ 41-44, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995).
238. CEDAW, supra note 2, art. 5.
239. Id. art. 10.
240. Id. art. 11.
241. BELL & OFFEN, supra note 42, at 398.
242. CEDAW, supra note 2, art. 16.
243. See Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women To Hold Twenty-First Session at Headquarters, U.N. Press Release WOM/1125, 4 June 1999, at 4. Sadly, the United States is not one of the ratifying countries. Although Presidents Carter and Clinton both submitted the treaty for ratification to the US Senate, the Senate has yet to act, and US women's organizations have not made ratification a priority item.
244. See WOMEN'S WATCH, Dec. 1998, at 3.