'To come together for progress': Modernization and nation-building in South Africa's bantustan periphery - the case of Bophuthatswana

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 579-605

  Jones, Peris Sean ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MODERNIZATION; POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT; STATE BUILDING;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0033374530     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/030570799108489     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. Independent on line, 'No Cheers for Mangope's Downfall as He is Sentenced', http://www.inc.co.za/Archives (1998).
2. M. Lawrence and A. Manson, 'The Dog of the Boers: the Rise and Fall of Mangope in Bophuthatswana', Journal of Southern African Studies, 20, 3 (1994), pp. 447-461.
3. J. L Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: the Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier, vol. 2 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1997), p. 406.
4. J. L Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, p. 22.
5. A.J. Norval, 'Social Ambiguity and the Crisis of Apartheid', in E. Laclau, The Making of Political Identities (Verso, London, 1994).
6. D. Himbara and S. Dawood, 'Reconstructing the Ugandan State and Economy: the Challenge of an International Bantustan', Review of African Political Economy, 63 (1995). See in response M. Doombos, 'Uganda: a Bantustan?', Review of African Political Economy, 69 (1996), pp. 425-427. In the context of the Israeli-Palestine conflict, see G.Usher, 'Bantustanisation or Bi-nationalism? An Interview with Azmi Bishara', Race & Class, 37, 2 (1995).
7. D. Himbara and S. Dawood, 'Reconstructing the Ugandan State and Economy: the Challenge of an International Bantustan', Review of African Political Economy, 63 (1995). See in response M. Doombos, 'Uganda: a Bantustan?', Review of African Political Economy, 69 (1996), pp. 425-427. In the context of the Israeli-Palestine conflict, see G.Usher, 'Bantustanisation or Bi-nationalism? An Interview with Azmi Bishara', Race & Class, 37, 2 (1995).
8. D. Himbara and S. Dawood, 'Reconstructing the Ugandan State and Economy: the Challenge of an International Bantustan', Review of African Political Economy, 63 (1995). See in response M. Doombos, 'Uganda: a Bantustan?', Review of African Political Economy, 69 (1996), pp. 425-427. In the context of the Israeli-Palestine conflict, see G.Usher, 'Bantustanisation or Bi-nationalism? An Interview with Azmi Bishara', Race & Class, 37, 2 (1995).
9. R. Southall, 'The Beneficiaries of Transkeian Independence', Journal of Modern African Studies, 15, 1 (1977), pp. 1-23.
10. For a review of the 'implosion' debate, see the collection in R. Southall, J. Segar and A. Donaldson (eds), Undoing Independence; Regionalism and Reincorporation of Transkei into South Africa (JCAS, Grahamstown, South Africa, 1992) and J. Peires, 'The Implosion of Transkei and Ciskei', African Affairs, 91 (1992), pp. 365-387, J. Graff, 'Towards an Understanding of Bantustan Polities', in Nattrass and Ardington (eds) The Political Economy of South Africa (Oxford University Press, Cape Town, 1990). The failure of ethnic nationalism is described in L. Bank, 'The Failure of Ethnic Nationalism: Land, Power, and the Politics of Clanship on the South African Highveld', Africa, 65, 4 (1995).
11. For a review of the 'implosion' debate, see the collection in R. Southall, J. Segar and A. Donaldson (eds), Undoing Independence; Regionalism and Reincorporation of Transkei into South Africa (JCAS, Grahamstown, South Africa, 1992) and J. Peires, 'The Implosion of Transkei and Ciskei', African Affairs, 91 (1992), pp. 365-387, J. Graff, 'Towards an Understanding of Bantustan Polities', in Nattrass and Ardington (eds) The Political Economy of South Africa (Oxford University Press, Cape Town, 1990). The failure of ethnic nationalism is described in L. Bank, 'The Failure of Ethnic Nationalism: Land, Power, and the Politics of Clanship on the South African Highveld', Africa, 65, 4 (1995).
12. For a review of the 'implosion' debate, see the collection in R. Southall, J. Segar and A. Donaldson (eds), Undoing Independence; Regionalism and Reincorporation of Transkei into South Africa (JCAS, Grahamstown, South Africa, 1992) and J. Peires, 'The Implosion of Transkei and Ciskei', African Affairs, 91 (1992), pp. 365-387, J. Graff, 'Towards an Understanding of Bantustan Polities', in Nattrass and Ardington (eds) The Political Economy of South Africa (Oxford University Press, Cape Town, 1990). The failure of ethnic nationalism is described in L. Bank, 'The Failure of Ethnic Nationalism: Land, Power, and the Politics of Clanship on the South African Highveld', Africa, 65, 4 (1995).
13. For a review of the 'implosion' debate, see the collection in R. Southall, J. Segar and A. Donaldson (eds), Undoing Independence; Regionalism and Reincorporation of Transkei into South Africa (JCAS, Grahamstown, South Africa, 1992) and J. Peires, 'The Implosion of Transkei and Ciskei', African Affairs, 91 (1992), pp. 365-387, J. Graff, 'Towards an Understanding of Bantustan Polities', in Nattrass and Ardington (eds) The Political Economy of South Africa (Oxford University Press, Cape Town, 1990). The failure of ethnic nationalism is described in L. Bank, 'The Failure of Ethnic Nationalism: Land, Power, and the Politics of Clanship on the South African Highveld', Africa, 65, 4 (1995).
14. Southall, Segar and Donaldson (eds), Undoing Independence.
15. Lawrence and Manson, 'The Dog of the Boers'.
16. G. Esteva, 'Development', in W. Sachs (ed), The Development Dictionary (Zed Books, London, 1992).
17. H. Sapire and J. Beall, 'Introduction: Urban Change and Urban Studies in Southern Africa, Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 1 (March 1995).
18. D. Slater, 'Challenging Western Visions of the Global: the Geopolitics of Theory and North-South Relations', European Journal of Development Research, 7, 2 (1993).
19. S. Parnell and A. Mabin, 'Rethinking Urban South Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 1 (March 1995), p. 39. See also J. Dixon, D. Foster, K. Durrheim and L. Wilbrahim, 'The Discourse and Politics of Space in South Africa: the "Squatter Crisis"', Discourse and Society, 5, 3 (1994), pp. 277-296.
20. S. Parnell and A. Mabin, 'Rethinking Urban South Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 1 (March 1995), p. 39. See also J. Dixon, D. Foster, K. Durrheim and L. Wilbrahim, 'The Discourse and Politics of Space in South Africa: the "Squatter Crisis"', Discourse and Society, 5, 3 (1994), pp. 277-296.
21. D. Drakakis-Smith (ed), Ethnicity and Development: Geographical Perspectives (Wiley, London, 1996); J. Crush (ed), The Power of Development (Routledge, London, 1995).
22. D. Drakakis-Smith (ed), Ethnicity and Development: Geographical Perspectives (Wiley, London, 1996); J. Crush (ed), The Power of Development (Routledge, London, 1995).
23. K. Manzo, 'Black Consciousness and the Quest for a Counter-Modernist Development' in Crush (ed), The Power of Development (1995).
24. See J. Alexander, 'The Local State in Post-War Mozambique: Political Practice and Ideas about Authority', pp. 1-26, and D.B Coplan and T. Quinlan, 'A Chief by the People: Nation versus State in Lesotho', pp. 27-61, both in Africa, 67, 1 (1997).
25. See J. Alexander, 'The Local State in Post-War Mozambique: Political Practice and Ideas about Authority', pp. 1-26, and D.B Coplan and T. Quinlan, 'A Chief by the People: Nation versus State in Lesotho', pp. 27-61, both in Africa, 67, 1 (1997).
26. T. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa', in E. Hobsbawn and T. Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge University Press, 1983).
27. T. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited: the Case of Colonial Africa', in T. Ranger and O. Vaughan, Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (Macmillan, 1993), p. 106.
28. B. Berman and J. Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa (James Currey, 1992), p. 466.
29. This term is used in preference to 'citizens' in concurrence with Mandami's thesis concerning the alienation of the peasantry through the (post) colonial state and local administration. M. Mandami, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (James Currey, 1996).
30. J.L. Boshoff, 'The Implications of Homeland Development for White South Africans', Bantu, (December 1970).
31. South African Government, UG 61/1955, Summary Report for the Socio-Economie Development of the Bantu Areas within the Union of South Africa (Pretoria, 1955), p. 17.
32. Summary Report for the Socio-Economic Development of the Bantu Areas, p. 207.
33. Minister for Bantu Affairs and Development, South Africa House of Assembly Debates, Hansard, vol. 28, col. 1782, Bantu Homeland Citizenship Bill (1970).
34. Bantu (August, 1977).
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. These ties were described as ' ... origins, descent, relationships, material interests, folklore, tribal connections, history and - strongest of all - language', House of Assembly Debates, col. 1782 (1970).
38. Bureau for Economic Research re the Bantu Development (BENBO), Bophuthatswana at Independence (van Rensburg, 1977), p. 27.
39. BENBO, Bophuthatswana at Independence.
40. C. Tapscott, 'Changing Discourses of Development in South Africa', in Crush, The Power of Development.
41. Boshoff, 'The Implications of Homeland Development', p. 31.
42. Following quotations are from Bantu Investment Corporation, Homelands: The Role of the Corporations in the Republic of South Africa (van Rensburg, 1974 & 1975).
43. Bantu Investment Corporation, Homelands.
44. Bophuthatswana Government, Nation on the March. Bophuthatswana 1977-1987, 'Ten Proud Years' (Hans Strydom, 1987).
45. For example, Batswana territory, within the boundaries of the old British Bechuanaland, had been rapidly alienated from 1895 following annexation of the 'Southern' Tswana to the Cape Province.
46. See Colin Murray, Black Mountain (Edinburgh University Press, 1994), ch. 2.
47. M. Gcinumkhonto, Deputy Secretary of the South African Communist Party, North West Province (South Africa, personal communication, 1995).
48. J. Butler, R. Rotberg and J. Adams, The Black Homelands of South Africa; the Political and Economic Development of Bophuthatmana and Kwa-Zulu (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1977).
49. Mafeking Mail, 30 October 1966.
50. Mafeking Mail, 5 May 1970.
51. 'As a cabinet, it is more nationalistic and less overtly politicized than its counterparts (than for example, in Kwa-Zulu)'. Butler et al., The Black Homelands, p. 65.
52. Mangope had replaced Pilane as chairman of the TTA/BLA in 1972 following a vote of 60 for and 8 against. Both political parties were, however, pro-Tswana. For example, the chairman of the SP, Mr SJJ Lesolang called for the compulsory introduction of Tswana into non-Tswana schools within Bophuthatswana, under the pretext that otherwise non-Tswana would be unable to gain government employment, Mafeking Mall, 25 January 1974.
53. Butler et al., The Black Homelands of South Africa.
54. Mafeking Mail, 26 January 1973.
55. According to the BNP manifesto in point 1(b) the BNP 'aims to build a strong and secure Bophuthatswana Nationalism'. See H. Van der Merwe, N. Charlton and D. Kotze (eds), African Perspectives on South Africa (Hoover, David Philip, Coilings, 1978), p. 499.
56. Butler et al., The Black Homelands of South Africa.
57. W.J Breytenback, 'Bophuthatswana at Independence, a Political Backgrounder' (Department of Information at the South African Embassy, Trafalgar Square, London, 1977), p. 13.
58. Van der Merwe et al., African Perspectives, p. 63.
59. Mafeking Mail, 23 November 1973.
60. Mafeking Mail, 3 January 1975.
61. Mafeking Mail, 3 January 1975.
62. BENBO, Bophuthatswana, p. 41.
63. Tswana Mail supplement in the Mafeking Mail, 18 January 1974.
64. Of the 47 candidates who stood for election in the 1972 Bophuthatswana elections, most were either farmers, former teachers and shopkeepers, in BENBO, Bophuthatswana.
65. Theo Moatshe, Montshiwa businessman, Tswana Mail in the Mafeking Mail, 31 August 1973 and Councillor Percy Sampson who claimed that one white man who walked into a council meeting 'had no manners at all... if we want racial harmony in this country Whites must learn to respect Blacks', Tswana Mail, 24 August 1973.
66. Theo Moatshe, Montshiwa businessman, Tswana Mail in the Mafeking Mail, 31 August 1973 and Councillor Percy Sampson who claimed that one white man who walked into a council meeting 'had no manners at all... if we want racial harmony in this country Whites must learn to respect Blacks', Tswana Mail, 24 August 1973.
67. A local Batswana shop-owner referring to a BIC official, who had acted in a very derogatory manner when inspecting his shop, Mafeking Mail, 27 July 1973.
68. Mafeking Mail, 3 January 1975.
69. P.S. Jones, ' "The Basic Assumptions as Regards the Nature and Requirements of a Capital City": Identity, Modernisation and Urban Form at Mafikeng's Margins', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research (forthcoming, 2000).
70. Bophuthatswana official, S.J.J. Lesolang, 'Decentralisation and Border Industries', The African Trader (1972). Lesolang was the chairman of the SP.
71. D. Moerdijk, Anti-Development, South Africa and its Bantustans (Unesco Press, Paris, 1981).
72. The election results strengthened Mangope's position within the Bophuthatswana homeland structure, with the BNP winning twelve out of sixteen seats.
73. 'The Montshiwa residents believe that the only advantage some of these Government nominated councillors had could have been their association with the BNP Montshiwa branch', Tswana Mail, 27 September 1974 and despite lacking the number of votes normally required in order to be elected to office, the new mayor of Montshiwa, previously an information officer in the Bophuthatswana government, was appointed by Mangope. Tswana Mail 4 October 1974.
74. 'The Montshiwa residents believe that the only advantage some of these Government nominated councillors had could have been their association with the BNP Montshiwa branch', Tswana Mail, 27 September 1974 and despite lacking the number of votes normally required in order to be elected to office, the new mayor of Montshiwa, previously an information officer in the Bophuthatswana government, was appointed by Mangope. Tswana Mail 4 October 1974.
75. Alexander, 'The Local State in Post-War Mozambique'.
76. Mafeking Mail, 7 November 1975. Furthermore, during the South African Parliamentary debate on granting Bophuthatswana's 'independence'. South African government officials and National Party MPs seized upon the legitimatory role given to 'tradition'. 'Tradition' was depicted as determining and deciding the course of bantustan 'independence'. At one moment during the debate, whilst advocating the appropriateness of 'traditional' values and structures for Bophuthatswana, one National Party MP incorrectly referred to Mangope, rather embarrassingly, as 'Headman' Mangope. The appearance, form or 'fact' of 'tradition' seemed of more importance than its dynamics or local detail. South Africa House of Assembly Debates on the Status of Bophuthatswana, Hansard, Bill, 6 May, 27 May and 30 May, 1977.
77. Mafeking Mail, 7 November 1975. Furthermore, during the South African Parliamentary debate on granting Bophuthatswana's 'independence'. South African government officials and National Party MPs seized upon the legitimatory role given to 'tradition'. 'Tradition' was depicted as determining and deciding the course of bantustan 'independence'. At one moment during the debate, whilst advocating the appropriateness of 'traditional' values and structures for Bophuthatswana, one National Party MP incorrectly referred to Mangope, rather embarrassingly, as 'Headman' Mangope. The appearance, form or 'fact' of 'tradition' seemed of more importance than its dynamics or local detail. South Africa House of Assembly Debates on the Status of Bophuthatswana, Hansard, Bill, 6 May, 27 May and 30 May, 1977.
78. Lawrence and Manson, 'Dog of the Boers', p. 451.
79. It is interesting to note that when the Bophuthatswana regime later made overtures for the incorporation of 'white' Mafeking into Bophuthatswana, the 'nation-hood' discourse shifted towards an emphasis upon inclusion and non-racialism. See Jones, ' "The Basic Assumptions ..." '.
80. Jones, * "The Basic Assumptions ..." '.
81. This was the Tswana phrase used on the Bophuthatswana coat of arms to denote nation-building.
82. Rand Daily Mall, 28 May 1977.
83. Between 1968 and 1971 alone, in order to endorse this ethnic and racial partition, 79,000 Tswana were subjected to 'arbitrary and unjust' removals. International Defence and Aid Fund, Profile of Bophuthatswana (IDAF, London, 1977).
84. School children and youths rampaged through Montshiwa township and set alight to Bophuthatswana government cars and buildings. The editorial in the local newspaper asked 'why did they succeed', if, as the Bophuthalswana government claimed, these rioters were simply 'troublemakers'? Rather, the riots indicated that the underlying current of frustration and anger was the real cause. Mafeking Mail, 15 August 1976. Of those fifteen people arrested, fourteen were school children. The one adult arrested was President Mangope's twenty year old son, Shimi Mangope.
85. The World, 11 March 1977. Mascloane alleged that Chief Mangope had already agreed to the Status of Bophuthatswana Bill on 25 April 1977 at his meeting with Prime Minister J. Vorster in Cape Town. However, 'Chief Mangope agreed to the citizenship clauses then but when he tested political opinion among Tswanas he took fright'.
86. Mafeking Mail, 10 June 1977.
87. The World, 30 May 1977. Transkei became 'independent' in 1976
88. The World, 11 March 1977.
89. Africa, 73 (September 1977).
90. The World, 25 August 1977.
91. Ibid.
92. Following extracts taken from Bophuthatswana Legislative Assembly, Special Session, 2nd Assembly, Report of the Committee on a Constitution for the Independent Bophuthatswana is accepted by the house as amended and will be formally adopted on 6 December 1977 (Montshiwa, Government Printers, 1977).
93. Headman TJ Montsho, ibid., p. 77.
94. Ibid., pp. 85-86.
95. Ibid., pp. 71.
96. Sifora voiced other sources of unhappiness with 'independence' including the Homeland Citizenship Bill, which undermined confidence in the conception of an independent Bophuthatswana because Tswana citizenship was enforced upon all Batswana in or outside the territory. Furthermore. non-Tswana residents falling under Bophuthatswana jurisdiction, would still be required to carry-the hated Identity Cards for the Bophuthatswana regime.
97. The Organisation of African Unity, epitomized the widespread international opposition to Bophuthatswana as: '... the sham independence ... which amounts to nothing short of the balkanisation of the country' Rand DailyMail, 5 December 1977.
98. BENBO estimated that 80 per cent of the GNP was created by commuters and migrant labourers who formed 60 per cent of Bophmhatswana's economically active population. BENBO, Bophuthatswana (Pretoria, 1976).
99. Ranger,. 'The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa'.
100. See Bantu (Pretoria, July 1977).
101. Following extracts of various government spokesmen from, Bophuthatswana Government, First National Assembly, 2nd Session, 13 February-30 March 1979, vol. 2, Bophuthatswana Development Bill, Second Reading.
102. Ibid., p. 1070.
103. Ibid.
104. Ibid., pp. 1070 and 1071.
105. A Directorate of Planning Co-ordination which had been established within the Department of Economic Affairs formed the nucleus for the establishment of the BDC. The BDC was therefore formed in 1979 and was the primary body responsible for defining departmental budgets, development planning and approval for projects in Bophuthatswana.
106. M. Gcinumkhonto, interview (South Africa, 1995).
107. Memo from D.W. Schoeman, Chairman of the BDC, Department of Economic Affairs (Montshiwa, 16 August 1979).
108. The chairman of the BDC himself, Mr D.W. Schoeman, had been trained in the Pretoria-based BENBO before being seconded as economic advisor to Bophuthatswana at Mangope's request. Schoeman finally joined the administration in 1979. D. Schoeman, Director of the Directorate of Development Planning and Administration, Bophuthatswana/North West Province (interview, Mmabatho, 28 March 1995).
109. BENBO, Bophuthatswana, p. 43.
110. Anon., Bophuthatswana at Independence (van Rensburg, Pretoria, 1977) and BENBO, Bophuthatswana (1977).
111. Anon., Bophuthatswana at Independence (van Rensburg, Pretoria, 1977) and BENBO, Bophuthatswana (1977).
112. Ibid.
113. Bophuthatswana Development Council, Development Strategy for Bophuthatswana (Draft of White Paper), (Mmabatho, 1979), p. 2.
114. Bophuthatswana Government, White Paper for Development (Mmabatho, 1981), pp. 24 and 25.
115. BDC, Development Strategy (1979), p. 11.
116. BENBO, Bophuthatswana (1977), p. 43 and see also Anon. (1977) for a similarly negative impression of tradition. For example, the lack of infrastructure was hitherto considered to be the result of the 'prevalence of traditional attitudes and practices'.
117. Ibid.
118. Ibid.
119. FJ. Potgieter, Developing Bophuthatswana - Suggestions for a National Plan (University of Potchefstroom, 1977).
120. BDC, Development Strategy (1979), p. 16.
121. See J. Roodt, 'Bophuthatswana's State Farming Projects: an Aggro Business?', Indicator South Africa, 3, 1 (1985), pp. 6-9.
122. J. Drammond, 'Land Use in a Rural African Village - Dinokana', Geo-Journal, 22, 3 (1990), pp. 335-343.
123. BDC, Development Strategy (1979).
124. Jones, ' "The Basic Assumptions ..." '.
125. Potgieter, Developing Bophuthatmana, p. 76.
126. B. Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State (James Currey, 1994), pp. 18 and 19.
127. K.P Magyar, 'Planning for Economic Development in Bophuthatswana', Indicator SA, 2, 1 (1984).
128. As to the White Paper itself Magyar suggested it was 'too ambitious' and ascribed to government 'unrealistic responsibility that will not be realized'. There appeared to be a lack of prioritization of objectives and no temporal schedule for long-term development programmes. K.P Magyar, Comments on the White Paper, unpublished document on behalf of the Bophuthatswana government (1982) and 'Planning for Economic Development' (1984).
129. As to the White Paper itself Magyar suggested it was 'too ambitious' and ascribed to government 'unrealistic responsibility that will not be realized'. There appeared to be a lack of prioritization of objectives and no temporal schedule for long-term development programmes. K.P Magyar, Comments on the White Paper, unpublished document on behalf of the Bophuthatswana government (1982) and 'Planning for Economic Development' (1984).
130. Development White Paper (Mmabalho, 1981), p. 38.
131. K.P Magyar, 'Planning for Economic Development'.
132. C. Tapscott, 'The Rise of "Development" Thinking in Transkei', in Southall et al., Undoing Dependency.
133. K.P Magyar, Personal communication (1997).
134. Magyar suggested to the President that Bophuthatswana could never succeed as a fully independent country and instead worked towards building integration. However, Mangope was supposedly 'unrealistic' and became increasingly convinced of Bophuthatswana's viability; Magyar, Personal communication (1997).
135. Bophuthatswana, A Nation on the March, p. 47.
136. Between 1979 and 1984, 29.5 per cent of 'national' revenue was set aside for 'development', averaging 20 per cent during the whole 'independence' era. The Department of Works between 1979 and 1985, received, on average, 54 per cent of total development expenditure. More generally, the Department of Works dominated total yearly Bophuthatswana Government expenditure (26 per cent in 1979 and 26.3 per cent in 1980, and between 1979 and 1985 averaging 18.3 per cent). Calculated as a percentage from North West Province statistical information covering Bophuthatswana, 1977-1994.
137. In 1980, a final confrontation proved to be the undoing of the BDC. At a meeting to discuss the tender for the new Mmabatho High School, the chairman of the BDC disagreed strongly with Mangope's desire to award the contract to large constructors from outside of Bophuthatswana. Schoeman wanted to encourage local firms 'when appropriate' to generate local growth and, particularly in this instance, Mafikeng based companies. Mangope chose to circumvent the BDC wishes and in protest Schoeman resigned. Schoeman (interview, 1995).
138. In just a few years from 1980 the number government Departments grew to 22 structures and with a number of parastatal corporations.
139. Schoeman (interview, 1995).
140. Ibid.
141. Ibid.
142. Magyar, 'Planning for Economic Development', p. 14.
143. For a fuller review of how these prestige projects were directed towards locating Bophuthatswana in the international community, see P.S. Jones, 'Mmabatho, "Mother of the People": Identity and Development in an Independent South African Bantustan, Bophuthatswana, 1977-1994', PhD thesis, University of Loughborough, 1997.
144. Ibid.
145. Ibid.
146. The Star, 11 February 1988.
147. Bophuthatswana Treason Trial, the BDF and Bophuthatswana National Security Unit. H2, CPT 26.
148. Leader of the PPP, Malebane-Metsing in Drum, (March 1988).
149. Africa Contemporary Notes and Records, 1987-1988: B778 (London, 1988).
150. The Bophuthatswana regime's manipulation of pre-colonial relations, along with other Tswan nationalists was based upon a Tswana traditon which ascribed mythical origins to the group having arisen from a bed of reeds at Ntswana Tdatsi (where the sun sets). See Lawrence and Manson, 'Dog of the Boers', p. 449.
151. B. Saul, Editor of the Mail (interview, Mafikeng, March, 1995).
152. The Mail, 12 September 1986.
153. Pioneer (July, 1982)
154. Elsewhere, for the winning author of the 'Hero of Setswana Books' competition, for contributions of Tswana culture, a prize of R1000 was awarded from the University publishers. The Mail, 31 March 1986.
155. By 1985, the ethnic composition of the population of Bophuthatswana still contained sizable minorities: Tswana (50 'tribes') 67.4 per cent, Shangaan/Tsonga 6.7 per cent, N. Sotho 6.3 per cent and Ndebele 4.8 per cent. A. Jeffery, At the Cross Roads (South African Institute of Race Relations, Johannesburg, 1993).
156. See Jones, 'Mmabatho, "Mother of the People" '.
157. See for example various chapters in both Murray, Black Mountain and B. Rogers, Divide and Rule (International Defence and Aid Fund, London, 1980).
158. See for example various chapters in both Murray, Black Mountain and B. Rogers, Divide and Rule (International Defence and Aid Fund, London, 1980).
159. Electronifc Mail and Guardian, 23 January 1998.
160. Manson and Lawrence, 'Dog of the Boers', p. 453.
161. See Jones, 'Mmabatho, "Mother of the People" '.
162. Translated from Mmabatho TV News archives (1992).
163. Bophuthatswana Independence Souvenir Program (Mmabatho, 1977).
164. Electronic Mail and Guardian, 7 November 1997.
165. See for example, Mangope in Pioneer (February 1982).
166. Mangope presentation in Bophuthatswana Institute of International Relations, Quantum Leap (Craft Press, Mmabatho, 1987), p. 86.
167. J.L Comaroff, 'Chieftship in a South African Homeland', Journal of Southern African Studies, 1, 4 (October 1974), pp. 36-51.
168. Ibid.
169. During the Bophuthatswana 'independence' years chiefs were 'expected' to belong to the BDP (later renamed the Christian Democratic Party of Bophuthatswana, CDP). This practice took place throughout Bophuthatswana and led to the undermining rather than strengthening of chieftaincy as an institution. Stephen Mosiane, 'dialogue' in Matlhasedi (July/August 1995).
170. D.R. Tapson, 'Rural Development and the Homelands', Development Southern Africa, 7 (October 1990).
171. M. FitzGerald, 'Participatory Community Development in Bophuthatswana', Community Development Journal 28, 1 (January 1993), pp. 11-18.
172. During interviews in the Mafikeng area, rather than acknowledging the continuing attraction of chieftaincy and traditional structures appeal to rural dwellers, a number of Alliance political activists in the North West region tended to express the opinion to the author that they were simply 'aristocratic' and by definition 'undemocratic', 'oppressive' and incompatible with 'liberation'.
173. Manson and Lawrence, 'Dog of the Boers', P.S. Jones, 'From Nation-Hood to Regionalism to the North West Province: "Bophuthatswananess" and the Birth of the "New" South Africa', African Affairs (October 1999).
174. Manson and Lawrence, 'Dog of the Boers', P.S. Jones, 'From Nation-Hood to Regionalism to the North West Province: "Bophuthatswananess" and the Birth of the "New" South Africa', African Affairs (October 1999).
175. Jones, 'From Nation-Hood to Regionalism'.
176. M. Crowder, 'Whose Dream was it Anyway? Twenty-five years of African Independence', African Affairs, 342 (January 1987), pp. 7-24.
177. It is interesting to note that for all the condemnation of Mangope and his United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) he gained enough votes in the 1999 general election to take a seat in the National Parliament. Furthermore, the UCDP is now the largest opposition party in the North West Province.
178. Bank. 'The Failure of Ethnic Nationalism'.
179. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited'.