Water supply, waste disposal, and the culture of privatism in the mid-nineteenth-century American City

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 321-347

  Ogle, Maureen ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; SERVICE PROVISION; URBAN PLANNING; WASTE DISPOSAL; WATER SUPPLY;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033366320     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614429902500302     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. Nelson Blake, Water for the Cities: A History of the Urban Water Supply Problem in the United States (Syracuse, 1956), 121-218; Louis P. Cain, Sanitation Strategy for a Lakefront Metropolis: The Case of Chicago (DeKalb, 1978), 23-9.
2. Nelson Blake, Water for the Cities: A History of the Urban Water Supply Problem in the United States (Syracuse, 1956), 121-218; Louis P. Cain, Sanitation Strategy for a Lakefront Metropolis: The Case of Chicago (DeKalb, 1978), 23-9.
3. General information on the history of urban water and waste technologies in the United States is in Stanley K. Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture: American Cities and City Planning, 1800-1920 (Philadelphia, 1989), 162-75; Joel A. Tarr, "Sewerage and the Development of the Networked City in the United States, 1850-1930," in Technology and the Rise of the Networked City in Europe and America, ed. Joel A. Tarr and Gabriel Dupuy (Philadelphia, 1988), 159-85; Blake, Water for the Cities; Moses N. Baker, The Manual of American Water-Works (New York, 1889-97).
4. General information on the history of urban water and waste technologies in the United States is in Stanley K. Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture: American Cities and City Planning, 1800-1920 (Philadelphia, 1989), 162-75; Joel A. Tarr, "Sewerage and the Development of the Networked City in the United States, 1850-1930," in Technology and the Rise of the Networked City in Europe and America, ed. Joel A. Tarr and Gabriel Dupuy (Philadelphia, 1988), 159-85; Blake, Water for the Cities; Moses N. Baker, The Manual of American Water-Works (New York, 1889-97).
5. General information on the history of urban water and waste technologies in the United States is in Stanley K. Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture: American Cities and City Planning, 1800-1920 (Philadelphia, 1989), 162-75; Joel A. Tarr, "Sewerage and the Development of the Networked City in the United States, 1850-1930," in Technology and the Rise of the Networked City in Europe and America, ed. Joel A. Tarr and Gabriel Dupuy (Philadelphia, 1988), 159-85; Blake, Water for the Cities; Moses N. Baker, The Manual of American Water-Works (New York, 1889-97).
6. General information on the history of urban water and waste technologies in the United States is in Stanley K. Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture: American Cities and City Planning, 1800-1920 (Philadelphia, 1989), 162-75; Joel A. Tarr, "Sewerage and the Development of the Networked City in the United States, 1850-1930," in Technology and the Rise of the Networked City in Europe and America, ed. Joel A. Tarr and Gabriel Dupuy (Philadelphia, 1988), 159-85; Blake, Water for the Cities; Moses N. Baker, The Manual of American Water-Works (New York, 1889-97).
7. The literature on the temper of the early- and midcentury republic is voluminous, but two new surveys that emphasize the paradox of optimism and anxiety are Daniel Feller, The Jacksonian Promise: America, 1815-1840 (Baltimore, 1995); and Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizers: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995).
8. The literature on the temper of the early- and midcentury republic is voluminous, but two new surveys that emphasize the paradox of optimism and anxiety are Daniel Feller, The Jacksonian Promise: America, 1815-1840 (Baltimore, 1995); and Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizers: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995).
9. An excellent discussion of the many faces of urban reform is in Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, 1978), 3-120.
10. For a general history of the sanitary reform effort, see John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana, 1990), 93-109; but also see two older but quite useful works: Richard H. Shryock, "The Origins and Significance of the Public Health Movement in the United States," Annals of Medical History 1, new series (1929), 645-65; Howard D. Kramer, "The Beginnings of the Public Health Movement in the United States," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 21 (1947), 352-76.
11. For a general history of the sanitary reform effort, see John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana, 1990), 93-109; but also see two older but quite useful works: Richard H. Shryock, "The Origins and Significance of the Public Health Movement in the United States," Annals of Medical History 1, new series (1929), 645-65; Howard D. Kramer, "The Beginnings of the Public Health Movement in the United States," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 21 (1947), 352-76.
12. For a general history of the sanitary reform effort, see John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana, 1990), 93-109; but also see two older but quite useful works: Richard H. Shryock, "The Origins and Significance of the Public Health Movement in the United States," Annals of Medical History 1, new series (1929), 645-65; Howard D. Kramer, "The Beginnings of the Public Health Movement in the United States," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 21 (1947), 352-76.
13. "Communication on Hygiene, From the Medical Department of the National Institute," Transactions of the American Medical Association 1 (1848), 306 (hereafter cited as Transactions AMA); Edward T. Morman, "Scientific Medicine Comes to Philadelphia: Public Health Transformed, 1854-1899" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986), 32; James M. Newman, "Report on the Sanitary Police of Cities," Transactions AMA 9 (1856), 448.
14. "Communication on Hygiene, From the Medical Department of the National Institute," Transactions of the American Medical Association 1 (1848), 306 (hereafter cited as Transactions AMA); Edward T. Morman, "Scientific Medicine Comes to Philadelphia: Public Health Transformed, 1854-1899" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986), 32; James M. Newman, "Report on the Sanitary Police of Cities," Transactions AMA 9 (1856), 448.
15. "Communication on Hygiene, From the Medical Department of the National Institute," Transactions of the American Medical Association 1 (1848), 306 (hereafter cited as Transactions AMA); Edward T. Morman, "Scientific Medicine Comes to Philadelphia: Public Health Transformed, 1854-1899" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986), 32; James M. Newman, "Report on the Sanitary Police of Cities," Transactions AMA 9 (1856), 448.
16. "Communication on Hygiene, From the Medical Department of the National Institute," Transactions of the American Medical Association 1 (1848), 306 (hereafter cited as Transactions AMA); Edward T. Morman, "Scientific Medicine Comes to Philadelphia: Public Health Transformed, 1854-1899" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986), 32; James M. Newman, "Report on the Sanitary Police of Cities," Transactions AMA 9 (1856), 448.
17. Charles E. Rosenberg's work has contributed greatly to our understanding of contemporaries' attitudes toward and ideas about disease. See especially The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago, 1962); and "The Cause of Cholera: Aspects of Etiological Thought in 19th-century America," in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison, 1978), 257-71. Also see Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture, 122-8; Phyllis Allen, "Etiological Theory in America Prior to the Civil War," Journal of the History of Medicine 2 (1947), 489-520.
18. Charles E. Rosenberg's work has contributed greatly to our understanding of contemporaries' attitudes toward and ideas about disease. See especially The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago, 1962); and "The Cause of Cholera: Aspects of Etiological Thought in 19th-century America," in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison, 1978), 257-71. Also see Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture, 122-8; Phyllis Allen, "Etiological Theory in America Prior to the Civil War," Journal of the History of Medicine 2 (1947), 489-520.
19. Charles E. Rosenberg's work has contributed greatly to our understanding of contemporaries' attitudes toward and ideas about disease. See especially The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago, 1962); and "The Cause of Cholera: Aspects of Etiological Thought in 19th-century America," in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison, 1978), 257-71. Also see Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture, 122-8; Phyllis Allen, "Etiological Theory in America Prior to the Civil War," Journal of the History of Medicine 2 (1947), 489-520.
20. Charles E. Rosenberg's work has contributed greatly to our understanding of contemporaries' attitudes toward and ideas about disease. See especially The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago, 1962); and "The Cause of Cholera: Aspects of Etiological Thought in 19th-century America," in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison, 1978), 257-71. Also see Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture, 122-8; Phyllis Allen, "Etiological Theory in America Prior to the Civil War," Journal of the History of Medicine 2 (1947), 489-520.
21. Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture, 113. Two useful discussions of midcentury British sanitary reform are R. A. Lewis, Edwin Chadwick and the Public Health Movement, 1832-1854 (London, 1952; New York, 1970), 83-177; and George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993), 168-209.
22. Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture, 113. Two useful discussions of midcentury British sanitary reform are R. A. Lewis, Edwin Chadwick and the Public Health Movement, 1832-1854 (London, 1952; New York, 1970), 83-177; and George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993), 168-209.
23. Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture, 113. Two useful discussions of midcentury British sanitary reform are R. A. Lewis, Edwin Chadwick and the Public Health Movement, 1832-1854 (London, 1952; New York, 1970), 83-177; and George Rosen, A History of Public Health (Baltimore, 1993), 168-209.
24. For different explanations for the failure of early public health initiatives and reform efforts, see Kramer, "Beginnings," 361-4; Alan I Marcus, "The Strange Career of Municipal Health Initiatives: Cincinnati and City Government in the Early Nineteenth Century," Journal of Urban History 7 (November 1980), 3-29; Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Massachusetts, 1842-1936 (Cambridge, 1972), 34-6. Two good examples of engineers' reports on European methods of sanitary management are William S. Whitwell, Report Made to the Water Commissioners of Jersey City, April 11th, 1853, Upon a Plan of City Sewerage (New York, 1853); and [E. S. Chesbrough], Chicago Sewerage. Report of the Results of Examinations Made in Relation to Sewerage in Several European Cities, in the Winter of 1856-7 (Chicago, 1858). In these two cases, the reporting engineers achieved considerable success in convincing city residents of the merits of the European methods. See Jon A. Peterson, "The Impact of Sanitary Reform Upon American Urban Planning, 1840-1890," Journal of Social History 13 (Fall 1979), 87-8.
25. For different explanations for the failure of early public health initiatives and reform efforts, see Kramer, "Beginnings," 361-4; Alan I Marcus, "The Strange Career of Municipal Health Initiatives: Cincinnati and City Government in the Early Nineteenth Century," Journal of Urban History 7 (November 1980), 3-29; Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Massachusetts, 1842-1936 (Cambridge, 1972), 34-6. Two good examples of engineers' reports on European methods of sanitary management are William S. Whitwell, Report Made to the Water Commissioners of Jersey City, April 11th, 1853, Upon a Plan of City Sewerage (New York, 1853); and [E. S. Chesbrough], Chicago Sewerage. Report of the Results of Examinations Made in Relation to Sewerage in Several European Cities, in the Winter of 1856-7 (Chicago, 1858). In these two cases, the reporting engineers achieved considerable success in convincing city residents of the merits of the European methods. See Jon A. Peterson, "The Impact of Sanitary Reform Upon American Urban Planning, 1840-1890," Journal of Social History 13 (Fall 1979), 87-8.
26. For different explanations for the failure of early public health initiatives and reform efforts, see Kramer, "Beginnings," 361-4; Alan I Marcus, "The Strange Career of Municipal Health Initiatives: Cincinnati and City Government in the Early Nineteenth Century," Journal of Urban History 7 (November 1980), 3-29; Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Massachusetts, 1842-1936 (Cambridge, 1972), 34-6. Two good examples of engineers' reports on European methods of sanitary management are William S. Whitwell, Report Made to the Water Commissioners of Jersey City, April 11th, 1853, Upon a Plan of City Sewerage (New York, 1853); and [E. S. Chesbrough], Chicago Sewerage. Report of the Results of Examinations Made in Relation to Sewerage in Several European Cities, in the Winter of 1856-7 (Chicago, 1858). In these two cases, the reporting engineers achieved considerable success in convincing city residents of the merits of the European methods. See Jon A. Peterson, "The Impact of Sanitary Reform Upon American Urban Planning, 1840-1890," Journal of Social History 13 (Fall 1979), 87-8.
27. For different explanations for the failure of early public health initiatives and reform efforts, see Kramer, "Beginnings," 361-4; Alan I Marcus, "The Strange Career of Municipal Health Initiatives: Cincinnati and City Government in the Early Nineteenth Century," Journal of Urban History 7 (November 1980), 3-29; Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Massachusetts, 1842-1936 (Cambridge, 1972), 34-6. Two good examples of engineers' reports on European methods of sanitary management are William S. Whitwell, Report Made to the Water Commissioners of Jersey City, April 11th, 1853, Upon a Plan of City Sewerage (New York, 1853); and [E. S. Chesbrough], Chicago Sewerage. Report of the Results of Examinations Made in Relation to Sewerage in Several European Cities, in the Winter of 1856-7 (Chicago, 1858). In these two cases, the reporting engineers achieved considerable success in convincing city residents of the merits of the European methods. See Jon A. Peterson, "The Impact of Sanitary Reform Upon American Urban Planning, 1840-1890," Journal of Social History 13 (Fall 1979), 87-8.
28. For different explanations for the failure of early public health initiatives and reform efforts, see Kramer, "Beginnings," 361-4; Alan I Marcus, "The Strange Career of Municipal Health Initiatives: Cincinnati and City Government in the Early Nineteenth Century," Journal of Urban History 7 (November 1980), 3-29; Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Massachusetts, 1842-1936 (Cambridge, 1972), 34-6. Two good examples of engineers' reports on European methods of sanitary management are William S. Whitwell, Report Made to the Water Commissioners of Jersey City, April 11th, 1853, Upon a Plan of City Sewerage (New York, 1853); and [E. S. Chesbrough], Chicago Sewerage. Report of the Results of Examinations Made in Relation to Sewerage in Several European Cities, in the Winter of 1856-7 (Chicago, 1858). In these two cases, the reporting engineers achieved considerable success in convincing city residents of the merits of the European methods. See Jon A. Peterson, "The Impact of Sanitary Reform Upon American Urban Planning, 1840-1890," Journal of Social History 13 (Fall 1979), 87-8.
29. For different explanations for the failure of early public health initiatives and reform efforts, see Kramer, "Beginnings," 361-4; Alan I Marcus, "The Strange Career of Municipal Health Initiatives: Cincinnati and City Government in the Early Nineteenth Century," Journal of Urban History 7 (November 1980), 3-29; Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Massachusetts, 1842-1936 (Cambridge, 1972), 34-6. Two good examples of engineers' reports on European methods of sanitary management are William S. Whitwell, Report Made to the Water Commissioners of Jersey City, April 11th, 1853, Upon a Plan of City Sewerage (New York, 1853); and [E. S. Chesbrough], Chicago Sewerage. Report of the Results of Examinations Made in Relation to Sewerage in Several European Cities, in the Winter of 1856-7 (Chicago, 1858). In these two cases, the reporting engineers achieved considerable success in convincing city residents of the merits of the European methods. See Jon A. Peterson, "The Impact of Sanitary Reform Upon American Urban Planning, 1840-1890," Journal of Social History 13 (Fall 1979), 87-8.
30. Sam Bass Warner, The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1987), xii.
31. Robin L. Einhorn, Property Rules: Political Economy in Chicago, 1833-1872 (Chicago, 1991), 14.
32. See Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture, 44. Schultz's lengthy treatment of nineteenth-century American municipal law and the law's impact on the municipality is a model of clarity and skilled analysis; the full discussion is on pages 35-91.
33. Ibid., 45.
34. See the description of the legal and financial maneuvering necessary to construct waterworks in Chicago described in Einhorn, Property Rules, 133-7; also see the discussion in Charles David Jacobson, "Private Firms and Public Goods: An Historical Perspective on Contracting Out for Public Services," in Public-Private Partnerships: Privatization in Historical Perspective (Chicago, 1989), 62-73.
35. See the description of the legal and financial maneuvering necessary to construct waterworks in Chicago described in Einhorn, Property Rules, 133-7; also see the discussion in Charles David Jacobson, "Private Firms and Public Goods: An Historical Perspective on Contracting Out for Public Services," in Public-Private Partnerships: Privatization in Historical Perspective (Chicago, 1989), 62-73.
36. Einhorn, Property Rules, 137.
37. A discussion of ordinances is in Maureen Ogle, All the Modern Conveniences: American Household Plumbing, 1840-1890 (Baltimore, 1996), 52, 55-6.
38. City of Detroit, Annual Report of the Board of Water Commissioners to the Common Council of the City of Detroit . . . for the Year Ending December 31, 1854 (Detroit, 1855), 10.
39. For a brief discussion of New York City as an exceptional case of urban development, see Eugene P. Moehring, "Space, Economic Growth, and the Public Works Revolution in New York," in Infrastructure and Urban Growth in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago, 1985), 29-59.
40. M. N. Baker, The Manual of American Water-Works (New York, 1889), 219, 278.
41. City of Detroit, Report of the Board of Water Commissioners to the Common Council of the City of Detroit . . . December 31, 1853 (Detroit, 1854), 26-42.
42. Blake, Water for the Cities, 77.
43. Ibid., 63-77.
44. John Bullock, The American Cottage Builder (New York, 1854), 235, 238. For more on household water systems, see Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 39-47.
45. John Bullock, The American Cottage Builder (New York, 1854), 235, 238. For more on household water systems, see Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 39-47.
46. On the introduction of plumbing, see Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 8-35.
47. Ibid., 62-84.
48. City of Hartford, Connecticut, Rules and Regulations Made by the Board of Water Commissioners of the City of Hartford (Hartford, 1861), 4, 7; City of Chicago, "Water Works," in Laws and Ordinances Governing the City of Chicago, January 1, 1866 (Chicago, 1866), 361, 362; City of Passaic, New Jersey, Tariff of Rates and Regulations for the Use of the Passaic Water; Also, Rules Regulating the Plumbing of Houses and the Tapping of Sewers (Jersey City, 1867), 6; Louisville Water Co., Rules and Regulations Governing the Introduction, Supply, and Consumption of Water From the Louisville Water Co. (Louisville, 1868), 4.
49. City of Hartford, Connecticut, Rules and Regulations Made by the Board of Water Commissioners of the City of Hartford (Hartford, 1861), 4, 7; City of Chicago, "Water Works," in Laws and Ordinances Governing the City of Chicago, January 1, 1866 (Chicago, 1866), 361, 362; City of Passaic, New Jersey, Tariff of Rates and Regulations for the Use of the Passaic Water; Also, Rules Regulating the Plumbing of Houses and the Tapping of Sewers (Jersey City, 1867), 6; Louisville Water Co., Rules and Regulations Governing the Introduction, Supply, and Consumption of Water From the Louisville Water Co. (Louisville, 1868), 4.
50. City of Hartford, Connecticut, Rules and Regulations Made by the Board of Water Commissioners of the City of Hartford (Hartford, 1861), 4, 7; City of Chicago, "Water Works," in Laws and Ordinances Governing the City of Chicago, January 1, 1866 (Chicago, 1866), 361, 362; City of Passaic, New Jersey, Tariff of Rates and Regulations for the Use of the Passaic Water; Also, Rules Regulating the Plumbing of Houses and the Tapping of Sewers (Jersey City, 1867), 6; Louisville Water Co., Rules and Regulations Governing the Introduction, Supply, and Consumption of Water From the Louisville Water Co. (Louisville, 1868), 4.
51. City of Hartford, Connecticut, Rules and Regulations Made by the Board of Water Commissioners of the City of Hartford (Hartford, 1861), 4, 7; City of Chicago, "Water Works," in Laws and Ordinances Governing the City of Chicago, January 1, 1866 (Chicago, 1866), 361, 362; City of Passaic, New Jersey, Tariff of Rates and Regulations for the Use of the Passaic Water; Also, Rules Regulating the Plumbing of Houses and the Tapping of Sewers (Jersey City, 1867), 6; Louisville Water Co., Rules and Regulations Governing the Introduction, Supply, and Consumption of Water From the Louisville Water Co. (Louisville, 1868), 4.
52. See the description of professional conflict in Christopher Hamlin, "Edwin Chadwick and the Engineers, 1842-1854: Systems and Antisystems in the Pipe-and-Brick Sewers War," Technology and Culture 33 (1992), 680-709.
53. A discussion of some of the issues that engineers had to overcome is in Joel A. Tarr, James McCurley III, Francis C. McMichael, and Terry Yosie, "Water and Wastes: A Retrospective Assessment of Wastewater Technology in the United States, 1800-1932," Technology and Culture 25 (April 1984), 234-6; and Joel A. Tarr, "The Separate vs. Combined Sewer Problem: A Case Study in Urban Technology Design Choice," Journal of Urban History 5 (May 1979), 314-5.
54. A discussion of some of the issues that engineers had to overcome is in Joel A. Tarr, James McCurley III, Francis C. McMichael, and Terry Yosie, "Water and Wastes: A Retrospective Assessment of Wastewater Technology in the United States, 1800-1932," Technology and Culture 25 (April 1984), 234-6; and Joel A. Tarr, "The Separate vs. Combined Sewer Problem: A Case Study in Urban Technology Design Choice," Journal of Urban History 5 (May 1979), 314-5.
55. A useful discussion of the private character of early drainage is in Eliot C. Clarke, Main Drainage Works of the City of Boston (Boston, 1888), 13-7.
56. For discussions of drainage, see Stuart Galishoff, "Drainage, Disease, Comfort, and Class: A History of Newark's Sewers," Societas 6 (1976), 122-3; Geoffrey Giglierano, "The City and the System: Developing a Municipal Service, 1800-1915," Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin 35 (1977), 223-4; E. S. Chesbrough, "The Drainage and Sewerage of Chicago," Public Health Reports and Papers 4 (1877-78), 18; and Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 56-9.
57. For discussions of drainage, see Stuart Galishoff, "Drainage, Disease, Comfort, and Class: A History of Newark's Sewers," Societas 6 (1976), 122-3; Geoffrey Giglierano, "The City and the System: Developing a Municipal Service, 1800-1915," Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin 35 (1977), 223-4; E. S. Chesbrough, "The Drainage and Sewerage of Chicago," Public Health Reports and Papers 4 (1877-78), 18; and Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 56-9.
58. For discussions of drainage, see Stuart Galishoff, "Drainage, Disease, Comfort, and Class: A History of Newark's Sewers," Societas 6 (1976), 122-3; Geoffrey Giglierano, "The City and the System: Developing a Municipal Service, 1800-1915," Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin 35 (1977), 223-4; E. S. Chesbrough, "The Drainage and Sewerage of Chicago," Public Health Reports and Papers 4 (1877-78), 18; and Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 56-9.
59. For discussions of drainage, see Stuart Galishoff, "Drainage, Disease, Comfort, and Class: A History of Newark's Sewers," Societas 6 (1976), 122-3; Geoffrey Giglierano, "The City and the System: Developing a Municipal Service, 1800-1915," Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin 35 (1977), 223-4; E. S. Chesbrough, "The Drainage and Sewerage of Chicago," Public Health Reports and Papers 4 (1877-78), 18; and Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 56-9.
60. P. C. Gaillard, "Report on the Sanitary Condition of Charleston, South Carolina," Transactions AMA 2 (1849), 584-85, 589.
61. City of Jersey City, New Jersey, "A Law Relating to Drains and Sewers," in Charters of and Acts Relating to Jersey City, and the Ordinances Thereof (Jersey City, 1844), 22-3; City of Manchester, New Hampshire, "Sewers and Drains," in The Charter With Its Amendments, and the Revised Ordinances of the City of Manchester (Manchester, 1854), 57.
62. City of Jersey City, New Jersey, "A Law Relating to Drains and Sewers," in Charters of and Acts Relating to Jersey City, and the Ordinances Thereof (Jersey City, 1844), 22-3; City of Manchester, New Hampshire, "Sewers and Drains," in The Charter With Its Amendments, and the Revised Ordinances of the City of Manchester (Manchester, 1854), 57.
63. City of Jersey City, "A Law Relating to Drains and Sewers," in Charters of and Acts Relating to Jersey City, and the Ordinances Thereof (Jersey City, 1844), 23; City of Springfield, Illinois, "Sewers," in The Charter, With the Amendments Thereto, and Revised Ordinances of the City of Springfield, Ill., comp. William J. Beach (Springfield, 1858), 197, 199.
64. City of Jersey City, "A Law Relating to Drains and Sewers," in Charters of and Acts Relating to Jersey City, and the Ordinances Thereof (Jersey City, 1844), 23; City of Springfield, Illinois, "Sewers," in The Charter, With the Amendments Thereto, and Revised Ordinances of the City of Springfield, Ill., comp. William J. Beach (Springfield, 1858), 197, 199.
65. City of Philadelphia, Board of Health, Report on the Subject of Connecting Privies and Water Closets With Sewers (Philadelphia, 1865), 11. A discussion of this episode is in Morman, "Scientific Medicine," 50-1. Morman argues that the board resisted these connections because it feared the "lower classes" would begin to use water closets; he sees this as one way in which local health officials used sanitation measures as a form of social control.
66. City of Philadelphia, Board of Health, Report on the Subject of Connecting Privies and Water Closets With Sewers (Philadelphia, 1865), 11. A discussion of this episode is in Morman, "Scientific Medicine," 50-1. Morman argues that the board resisted these connections because it feared the "lower classes" would begin to use water closets; he sees this as one way in which local health officials used sanitation measures as a form of social control.
67. City of New York, "Extracts From Revised Ordinances, 1859: Of Sewers, Drains, &c," in Laws and Ordinances Relative to the Preservation of Public Safety in the City of New York, comp. George W. Morton (New York, 1860), 162. A discussion of this episode is in John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City, 1625-1866 (New York, 1968), 409-11.
68. City of New York, "Extracts From Revised Ordinances, 1859: Of Sewers, Drains, &c," in Laws and Ordinances Relative to the Preservation of Public Safety in the City of New York, comp. George W. Morton (New York, 1860), 162. A discussion of this episode is in John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City, 1625-1866 (New York, 1968), 409-11.
69. City of New York, "Extracts From Revised Ordinances, 1859: Of Sewers, Drains, &c," in Laws and Ordinances Relative to the Preservation of Public Safety in the City of New York, comp. George W. Morton (New York, 1860), 162. A discussion of this episode is in John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City, 1625-1866 (New York, 1968), 409-11.
70. E. S. Chesbrough, Moses Lane, and Charles F. Folsom, The Sewerage of Boston (Boston, 1876), 16.
71. James Bayles, House Drainage and Water Service (New York, 1878), 275; [J. Herbert Shedd], Report of J. Herbert Shedd, C.E., in Relation to Sewerage for the City of Lynn (Lynn, 1877), 6; Rudolph Hering, Report on European Sewerage Systems, With Special Reference to the Needs of the City of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1881), 12.
72. James Bayles, House Drainage and Water Service (New York, 1878), 275; [J. Herbert Shedd], Report of J. Herbert Shedd, C.E., in Relation to Sewerage for the City of Lynn (Lynn, 1877), 6; Rudolph Hering, Report on European Sewerage Systems, With Special Reference to the Needs of the City of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1881), 12.
73. James Bayles, House Drainage and Water Service (New York, 1878), 275; [J. Herbert Shedd], Report of J. Herbert Shedd, C.E., in Relation to Sewerage for the City of Lynn (Lynn, 1877), 6; Rudolph Hering, Report on European Sewerage Systems, With Special Reference to the Needs of the City of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1881), 12.
74. Contract, Sarah D. Bird House, Brookline, Massachusetts, 1858; Box 3, Folder 13A, Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities.
75. Hering, Report, 12.
76. Calvert Vaux, Villas and Cottages (New York, 1857), 47-8.
77. Foundation Plan, Ehpm. Merriam House, Luther Briggs, architect, Jamaica Plain, 1856, Briggs Collection, Drawer 5, File 7, Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities. A discussion of household waste disposal is in Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 47-51.
78. City of Richmond, Virginia, "Concerning Sinks, Cesspools and Privies," in The Charter and Ordinances of the City of Richmond, With the Amendments to the Charter (Richmond, 1867), 134; City of Hannibal, Missouri, "An Ordinance in Relation to Nuisances," in The Revised Ordinances of the City of Hannibal (Hannibal, 1858), 145; City of Hannibal, "An Ordinance in Relation to Nuisances," in Charter and Ordinances of the City of Hannibal (Hannibal, 1865), 99-100; City of Burlington, Iowa, "Nuisances," in Ordinances of the City of Burlington, rev. Chas. Ben. Darwin (Burlington, 1856), 101.
79. City of Richmond, Virginia, "Concerning Sinks, Cesspools and Privies," in The Charter and Ordinances of the City of Richmond, With the Amendments to the Charter (Richmond, 1867), 134; City of Hannibal, Missouri, "An Ordinance in Relation to Nuisances," in The Revised Ordinances of the City of Hannibal (Hannibal, 1858), 145; City of Hannibal, "An Ordinance in Relation to Nuisances," in Charter and Ordinances of the City of Hannibal (Hannibal, 1865), 99-100; City of Burlington, Iowa, "Nuisances," in Ordinances of the City of Burlington, rev. Chas. Ben. Darwin (Burlington, 1856), 101.
80. City of Richmond, Virginia, "Concerning Sinks, Cesspools and Privies," in The Charter and Ordinances of the City of Richmond, With the Amendments to the Charter (Richmond, 1867), 134; City of Hannibal, Missouri, "An Ordinance in Relation to Nuisances," in The Revised Ordinances of the City of Hannibal (Hannibal, 1858), 145; City of Hannibal, "An Ordinance in Relation to Nuisances," in Charter and Ordinances of the City of Hannibal (Hannibal, 1865), 99-100; City of Burlington, Iowa, "Nuisances," in Ordinances of the City of Burlington, rev. Chas. Ben. Darwin (Burlington, 1856), 101.
81. City of Richmond, Virginia, "Concerning Sinks, Cesspools and Privies," in The Charter and Ordinances of the City of Richmond, With the Amendments to the Charter (Richmond, 1867), 134; City of Hannibal, Missouri, "An Ordinance in Relation to Nuisances," in The Revised Ordinances of the City of Hannibal (Hannibal, 1858), 145; City of Hannibal, "An Ordinance in Relation to Nuisances," in Charter and Ordinances of the City of Hannibal (Hannibal, 1865), 99-100; City of Burlington, Iowa, "Nuisances," in Ordinances of the City of Burlington, rev. Chas. Ben. Darwin (Burlington, 1856), 101.
82. City of Peoria, Illinois, "Public Health-Nuisances," in The City Charter, With the Several Laws Amendatory Thereto, and the Revised Ordinances of the City of Peoria, Ill., rev. James M. Cunningham (Peoria, 1857), 160-1; City of Portland, Maine, "Health," in The Charter and Ordinances of the City of Portland, Together With the Acts of the Legislature Relating to the City, Collated and Revised by a Joint Committee of the City Council (Portland, 1856), 145.
83. City of Peoria, Illinois, "Public Health-Nuisances," in The City Charter, With the Several Laws Amendatory Thereto, and the Revised Ordinances of the City of Peoria, Ill., rev. James M. Cunningham (Peoria, 1857), 160-1; City of Portland, Maine, "Health," in The Charter and Ordinances of the City of Portland, Together With the Acts of the Legislature Relating to the City, Collated and Revised by a Joint Committee of the City Council (Portland, 1856), 145.
84. City of Lowell, Massachusetts, "Of Health," in The Charter With Its Amendments, and the Revised Ordinances of the City of Lowell: Together With Sundry Laws of the Commonwealth (Lowell, 1846), 62.
85. John Higham, "Hanging Together; Divergent Unities in American History," Journal of American History 61 (June 1974), 19, 22.
86. A discussion of the shift to centrally managed, unified water and sewer systems and its impact on household sanitation is in Ogle, Modern Conveniences, 93-104, 109-16, 143-7.