Practical considerations for large-scale cryopreservation of a tissue engineered human dermal replacement

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Bioengineering Division (Publication) BED

Volumn 44, Issue , 1999, Pages 77-91

  Applegate, Dawn R ^a   Liu, Kang ^a   Mansbridge, Jonathan ^a  

^a Advanced Tissue Sciences Liquidating Trust   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING; CRYOGENICS; CYTOLOGY; GROWTH KINETICS; MATHEMATICAL MODELS; SKIN; TISSUE;

CRYOPRESERVATION; DERMAL REPLACEMENT; IN VIVO TISSUE FUNCTIONALITY; TISSUE ENGINEERING; TISSUE PRESERVATION;

BIOTECHNOLOGY;

EID: 0033294161     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. American Burn Association, 1996, "Burn Incidence and Treatment in the United States," 1996 Fact Sheet.
2. Arakawa, T., Carpenter, J. F., Kita Y. A., and Crowe, J. H., 1990, "The Basis of Toxicity of Certain Cryoprotectants: a Hypothesis," Cryobiology, Vol. 27, pp. 401-415.
3. Armitage, W. J., and Juss, B. K., 1996, "The Influence of Cooling Rate on Survival of Frozen Cells Differs in Monolayers and in Suspensions," Cryobiology Letters, Vol. 17, pp. 213-218.
4. Armitage, W. J., Juss, B. K., Easty, D. L., 1994, "Response of Epithelial (MDCK) Cell Junctions to Calcium Removal and Osmotic Stress is Influenced by Temperature," Cryobiology, Vol. 31, pp. 453-460.
5. Arnst, C. and Carey, J., 1998, "Biotech Bodies," Business Week, July 27, pp. 56-63.
6. Arnaud, F. G., and Pegg, D. E., 1990a, "Cryopreservation of human platelets with 1.4 M Glycerol at -75 Degrees C in PVC Blood Packs," Thrombosis Research, Volume 57, No. 6, pp. 9191-924.
7. Arnaud, F. G., and Pegg, D. E., 1990b, "Permeation of Glycerol and Propane-1,2-diol into Human Platelets," Cryobiology, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 107-118.
8. Basil, A. R., 1982, "A Comparative Study of Glycerinized and Lyophilized Porcine Skin in Dressings for Third-Degree Burns," Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Vol. 69, No. 6, pp. 969-974.
9. Bernelli-Zazzera, A., 1989, "Patterns of RNA and Protein Synthesis in Post-ischemic Livers," Free Radical Research Communication, Vol. 7, No.3-6, pp. 301-305.
10. Berger, W. K., and Uhrik, B., 1996, "Freeze-Induced Shrinkage of Individual Cells and Cell-to-Cell Propagation of Intracellular Ice in Cell Chains from Salivary Glands," Experientia, Vol. 52, pp. 843-850.
11. Bischof, J. C., Ryan, C. M., Tompkins, R. G., Yarmush, M. L., and Toner, M., 1997, "Ice Formation in Isolated Human Hepatocytes and Human Liver Tissue," American Society for Artificial Internal Organs Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 271-278.
12. Borel Rinkes, I. H. M., Toner, M., Ezzel, R. M., Tompkins, R. G., Yarmush, M. L., 1992a, "Effects of Dimethyl Sulfoxide on Cultured Rat Hepatocytes in Sandwich Configurations," Cryobiology, Vol. 29, pp. 443-453.
13. Borel Rinkes, I. H. M., Toner, M., Sheehan, S. J., Tompkins, R. G., Yarmush, M. L., 1992b, "Long-Term Functional Recovery of Hepatocytes After Cryopreservation in a Three-Dimensional Culture Configuration," Cell Transplantation, Vol. 1, pp. 281-292.
14. Bowering, K. C., 1998, "The Use of Dermagraft® in the Treatment of Diabetic Foot Ulcers," Today's Therapeutic Trends, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 87-96.
15. Brigham, P. A., and McLoughlin, E., 1996, "Burn Incidence and Medical Care in the United States: Estimates, Trends and Data Sources," Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 95-107.
16. Brockbank, K. G. M., Carpenter, J. F., Dawson, P. E., 1992, "Effects of Storage Temperature on Viable Bioprosthetic Heart Valves," Cryobiology, Vol. 29, pp. 537-542.
17. Burdon, R. H., 1986, "Heat Shock and the Heat Shock Proteins," Biochemistry Journal, Vol. 240, No. 2, pp. 313-324.
18. Carbognani, P., Rusca M., Spaggiari L., Solli P., Alfieri R., Cattelani, L., Bobbio A., and Bobbio P., 1997, "The Effect of Trehalose on Human Lung Fibroblasts stored in Euro-Collins and Low Potassium Dextran Solutions," Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery, Vol 38, No. 6, pp. 669-671.
19. Chang, P., Rosenquist, M. S., Lewis, R. W., II., and Kealey, G. P., 1998, "A Study of Functional Viability and Metabolic Degeneration of Human Skin Stored at 4°C," Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 25-28.
20. Code of Federal Regulations, 21 CFR 820.80, "Medical Devices; Current Good Manufacturing Procedures Final Rule; Quality Systems Regulation," and 21 CRF 211.165, "Current Good Manufacturing Procedures for Finished Pharmaceuticals".
21. Cohen, I., Yemini, M., Wexler, M., and Brautbar, H., 1980, "Prolonged Survival of Allogeneic Mouse Skin Grafts Following Preservation," Israel Journal of Medical Science, Vol. 16, No. 9-10, pp. 628-630.
22. Contard, P., Bartel, R. L., Jacobs, L., et al., 1993, "Culturing Keratinocytes and Fibroblasts in a Three-Dimensional Mesh Results in Epidermal Differentiation and Formation of a Basal Lamina-Anchoring Zone," Journal of Investigative Dermatology, Vol. 100, pp. 35-39.
23. Cooper, M. L., Hansbrough, J. F., Spievogel, R. L., Cohen, R., Bartel, R., and Naughton, G. K., 1991, "In Vivo Optimization of a Living Dermis Substitute Employing Cultured Human Fibroblasts on a Biodegradable Polyglycolic Acid or Polyglactin Mesh," Biomaterials, Vol. 12, pp. 243-248.
24. Dagalakis, N., Flink, J., Stasikelis, P., Burke, J. F., and Yannas, I. V., 1980, "Design of an Artificial Skin. Part III. Control of Pore Structure," Journal of Biomedical Material Research, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 511-528.
25. Demling, R. H., and DeSanti, L, 1999, "Management of Partial Thickness Facial Burns Comparison of Topical Antibiotics and Bioengineered Skin Substitutes," Burns, Vol. 25, pp. 256-261.
26. Diller, K. R., 1975, "Intracellular Freezing: Effect of Extracellular Supercooling," Cryobiology, Vol. 12, pp. 480-485.
27. Diller. K. R., 1992, "Modeling of Bioheat Transfer Processes at High and Low Temperatures," In: Cho, Y.I., Ed., Bioengineering Heat Transfer (Vol. 22), San Diego, CA, Academic Press, pp. 157-357.
28. Diller, K. R., and Raymond, J. F., 1990, "Water Transport Through a Multicellular Tissue During Freezing: A Network Thermodynamic Modeling Analysis," Cryobiology Letters, Vol. 11, pp. 151-162.
29. Dong, J. F., Detta, A., and Hitchcock, E. R., 1993, "Susceptibility of Human Foetal Brain Tissue to Cool- and Freeze-Storage," Brain Research, Vol. 621, pp. 242-248.
30. Fahy, 1986, "The Relevance of Cryoprotectant 'Toxicity' to Cryobiology," Cryobiology, Vol. 23, pp. 1-13.
31. Fahy, G. M., MacFarlane, D. R., Angell, C. A., and Meryman, H. T., 1984, "Vitrification as an Approach to Cryopreservation," Cryobiology, Vol. 21, pp. 407-426.
32. Fahy, G. M., Saur, J., Williams, R. J., 1990, "Physical Problems with the Vitrification of Large Biological Systems," Cryobiology, Vol. 27, pp. 492-510.
33. Farkas, B., Balogh, G., Ková, E., and Vigh, L., 1997, "Role of Stress Proteins in Diabetic Wound Healing," Australasian Journal of Dermatology, Vol. 38, Suppl. 2, p. 57.
34. Feder, M. E. and Hofmann, G. E., 1999, "Heat-Shock Proteins, Molecular Chaperones, and the Stress Response: Evolutionary and Ecological Physiology," Annual Reviews in Physiology, Vol. 61, pp. 243-282.
35. Forsyth, M., MacFarlane, D. R., 1986, "Recrystallization Revisited," Cryobiology Letters, Vol. 7, pp. 367-378.
36. rd Edition, Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York, p. 102.
37. Frost & Sullivan, 1995, "Urinary Incontinence - U.S. Incontinence and Ostomy Product Markets -Forecasts of Appliances, Electrical Stimulation, Urodynamic Equipment and Urinary Markets," August, Mountain View, California.
38. Gao, D. Y., Liu, J., Liu, C., McGann, L. E., Watson, P. F., Kleinhans, F. W., Mazur, P., Critser, E. S., and Critser, J. K., 1995, "Prevention of Osmotic Injury to Human Spermatozoa During Addition and Removal of Glycerol," Human Reproduction, Vol. 10, pp. 1109-1122.
39. Gentzkow, G. D., Jensen, J. L., Pollak, R. A., Kroeker, R. O., Lerner, J. M., Lerner, M., and Iwasaki, S. D., 1999, "Improved Healing of Diabetic Foot Ulcers After Grafting with a Living Human Dermal Replacement," Wounds, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 77-84.
40. Gentzkow, G. D., Prendergast, J. J., Iwasaki, S. D., Ricotta, J. J., Hershon, K. S., Steed, D. P., Mengel, M., and Lipkin, S., 1996, "Use of Dermagraft, a Cultured Human Dermis, to Treat Diabetic Foot Ulcers," Diabetes Care, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 350-354.
41. rd, Hamilton, R. W., and Lehr, H. B., 1971, "Versatility of Skin Allografts: Desirability of a Viable Frozen Tissue Bank," Journal of Trauma, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 494-501.
42. Halberstadt, C. R., Hardin, R., Bezverkov, K., Snyder, D., Allen, L., Landeen, L., 1994, "The In Vitro Growth of a Three-Dimensional Human Dermal Replacement Using a Single-Pass Perfusion System," Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 43, pp. 740-746.
43. Hansbrough, J. F., Mozingo, D. W., Kealey, G. P., Davis, M., Gidner, A., Gentzkow, G. D., 1997, "Clinical Trials of a Biosynthetic Temporary Skin Replacement, Dermagraft-Transitional Covering, Compared with Cryopreserved Human Cadaver Skin for Temporary Coverage of Excised Burn Wounds," Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation, Vol. 18, pp. 43-51.
44. Heacock, C. S. and Sutherland, R. M., 1986, "Induction Characteristics of Oxygen Regulated Proteins," International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology and Physics, Vol. 12, No. 8, pp. 1287-1290.
45. Heber, U., 1970, "Protein Capable of Protecting Chlorophast Membranes Against Freezing," In: Wolstenholme, G. E. W. and O'conner, M., Eds., The Frozen Cell (CIBA Foundation Symposium). J&A Churchill, Edinburgh, pp. 175-188.
46. Hetzel, F. W., Kruuv, J., McGann, L. E., and Frey, H. E., 1973, "Exposure of Mammalian Cells to Physical Damage: Effect of the State of Adhesion on Colony-Forming Potential," Cryobiology, Vol. 10, pp. 206-211.
47. Hightower, L. E., 1991, "Heat Shock, Stress Proteins, Chaperones, and Proteotoxicity." Cell, Vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 191-197.
48. Hornung, J., Muller, T., and Fuhr, G., 1996 "Cryopreservation of Anchorage-Dependent Mammalian Cells Fixed to Structured Glass and Silicone Substrates," Cryobiology, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 260-270.
49. Hubel, A., Toner, M., Cravalho, E. G., Yarmush, M. L., and Tompkins, R. G., 1991, "Intracellular Ice Formation During the Freezing of Hepatocytes Cultured in a Double Collagen Gel," Biotechnology Progress, Vol. 7, pp. 554-559.
50. Jacobsen, I. A., and Pegg, D. E., 1984, "Cryopreservation of Organs: A Review," Cryobiology, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 377-384.
51. Jakoby, W. B., and Pastan, I. H., eds., 1979, "Cell Culture", In: Methods in Enzymology, New York, Academic Press, pp. 58.
52. Karlsson, J. O., and Toner, M., 1996, "Long-Term Storage of Tissues by Cryopreservation: Critical Issues," Biomaterials, Vol. 17, pp. 243-256.
53. Karlsson, J. O., Eroglu A., Toth T. L., Cravalho E. G., and Toner, M., 1996, "Fertilization and Development of Mouse Oocytes Cryopreserved Using a Theoretically Optimized Protocol," Human Reproduction, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 1296-1305.
54. Kearney, J. N., 1991, "Cryopreservation of Cultured Skin Cells," Burns, Vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 380-383.
55. Kearney, J. N., Wheldon, L. A., and Gowland, G., 1990, "Effects of Cryobiological Variables on the Survival of Skin Using a Defined Murine Model," Cryobiology, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 164-170.
56. Kitahara, A. K., Suzuki, Y., Zhan, C. W., Wada, H., and Nishimura, Y., 1998, "Evaluation of New Improved Solution Containing Trehalose in Free Skin Flap Storage," Brittish Journal of Plastic Surgery, Vol. 51, No. 2, pp. 118-121.
57. Klein, M.B., Shaw, D., Barese, S., Chapo, G. A., Cuono, C. B., 1996, "A Reliable and Cost-Effective in Vitro Assay of Skin Viability for Skin Banks and Burn Centers," Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 565-570.
58. Konstantinow, A., Muhlbauer, W., Hartinger, A., and von Donnersmarck, G. G., 1991, "Skin Banking: A Simple Method for Cryopreservation of Split-Thickness Skin and Cultured Human Epidermal Keratinocytes," Annals of Plastic Surgery, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 89-97.
59. Kreis, R. W., Vloemans, A. F., Hoekstra, M. J., Mackie, D. P., and Hermans R. P., 1989, "The Use of Non-Viable Glycerol-Preserved Cadaver Skin Combined with Widely Expanded Autografts in the Treatment of Extensive Third-Degree Burns," Journal of Trauma, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 51-54.
60. Kruse, P. F. Jr., and Patterson, M. K. Jr., Eds., 1973, Tissue Culture Methods and Applications, Academic Press, New York.
61. Kurjan, C., Applegate, M. A., Flatt, J. H., Applegate, D. O., Bloom, N. D., Baumgartner, M., 1996, "Apparatus for the Large Scale Growth and Packaging of Cell Suspensions and Three-Dimensional Tissue Cultures," U. S. Patent No. 5,763,267.
62. Landeen, L. K., Ziegler, F. C., Halberstadt, C., Cohen, R., Slivka, S. R., 1992, "Characterization of a Human Dermal Replacement," Wounds, Vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 167-175.
63. Langer, R., and Vacanti, J. P., 1993, "Tissue Engineering," Science, Vol. 260, pp. 920-926.
64. Larese, A., Yang, H., Petrenko, A., and McGann, L. E., 1992, "Intracellular Ice Formation is Affected by Cell-to-cell Contact," Cryobiology, Vol. 29, p. 728.
65. Levin, R. L., and Miller, T. E., 1981, "An Optimum method for the Introduction and Removal of Permeable Cryoprotectants: Isolated Cells," Cryobiology, Vol. 18, pp. 32-48.
66. Levin, R. L., Cravalho, E. G., and Huggins, C. E., 1977, "Water Transport in a Cluster of Closely Packet Erythrocytes at Subzero Temperatures," Cryobiology, Vol. 14, pp. 549-558.
67. Levin, J., 1962, "A Sulfhydryl-disulfide Hypothesis of Frost Injury and Resistance in Plants," Journal of Theoretical Biology. Vol. 3, pp. 355-391.
68. Liu, K., Yang, Y., and Mansbridge, J. 1999, "Induction of Stress Proteins by Cryopreservation in a Three-Dimensional Fibroblast Culture," in press.
69. Maack, P., Rieger, P., and Rudiger, H. W., 1982, "Recovery After Freezing and Thawing of Cultured Human Diploid Fibroblasts," Cryobiology, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 10-15.
70. Mansbridge, J. and Liu, K., 1998a, "Three-dimensional fibroblast cultures respond to cryopreservation with the induction of selective stress proteins," Cryobiology, Vol. 27, pp. 409.
71. Mansbridge, J. N., Liu, K., Pinney, E., Patch, R., Ratcliffe, A., Naughton, G., 1999, "Growth Factors Secreted by Fibroblasts: Role in Healing Diabetic Foot Ulcers," Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, in press.
72. Mansbridge, J., Liu, K., Pinney, E., Patch, R., Symons, K., and Pinney, E., 1998b. "Three-Dimensional Fibroblast Culture Implant for the Treatment of Diabetic Foot Ulcers: Metabolic Activity and Therapeutic Range," Tissue Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 403-414.
73. May, S. R., and Roberts, D. P., 1988, "Development of a Passive Device for Freezing Large Amounts of Transplantable Skin at One Time in a -70 Degree C Mechanical Refrigerator," Cryobiology, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 186-196.
74. May, S. R., and Wainwright, J. F., 1985a, "Integrated Study of the Structural and Metabolic Degeneration of Skin During 4 Degrees C Storage in Nutrient Medium," Cryobiology, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 18-34.
75. May, S. R., and Wainwright, J. F., 1985b, "Optimum Warming Rates to Maintain Glucose Metabolism in Porcine Skin Cryopreserved by Slow Cooling," Cryobiology, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 196-202.
76. Maytin, E. V., 1995, "Heat Shock Proteins and Molecular Chaperones: Implications for Adaptive Responses in the Skin," Journal of Investigative Dermatology, Vol. 104, pp. 448-455.
77. Mazur, P., 1984, "Freezing of Living Cells: Mechanisms and Implications," American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 247, pp. C125-C142.
78. McGann, L. E., Farrant, J., 1976, "Survival of Tissue Culture Cells Frozen by a Two-Step Procedure to -196°C. I. Holding temperature and Time," Cryobiology, Vol. 13, pp. 261-268.
79. McGrath, J. J., 1985, "Preservation of Biological Material by Freezing and Thawing," In: Shitzer, A. and Eberhart, R.C., Eds., Heat Transfer in Medicine and Biology, Plenum Press, New York, Vol. 2, pp. 185-238.
80. McGrath, J. J., 1993, "Low Temperature Injury Processes," In: Roemer, R. B. Ed., Advances in Bioheat and Mass Transfer (Vol HTD-268), New York, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, pp. 125-132.
81. McKay, D. B. and Karow, A. M., Jr., 1983, "Factors to Consider in the Assessment of Viability of Cryopreserved Islets of Langerhans," Cryobiology, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 151-160.
82. Mooney, D. J., and Mikos, A. G., 1999, "Growing New Organs," Scientific American, Vol. 280, No. 4, pp. 60-65.
83. Morries, G. J., and Clarke, A., 1981, Effect of Low Temperature on Biological Membranes, Academic Press, London, pp. 24-36.
84. Muldrew, K., Hurtig, M., Novak, K., Schachar, N., and McGann, L. E., 1994, "Localization of Freezing Injury in Aritcular Cartilage," Cryobiology, Vol. 31, pp. 31-38.
85. Naughton, G. K., 1999, "Skin: The First Tissue-Engineered Products, The Advanced Tissue Sciences Story," Scientific American, Vol. 280, No. 4, pp. 84-85.
86. Naughton, G. K., Bartel, R., and Mansbridge, J., 1997a. "Synthetic Biodegradable Polymer Scaffolds," In: Atala, A. and Mooney, D., Eds. Synthetic Biodegradable Polymer Scaffolds, Boston, MA: Birkhauser Inc., 1997, pp. 121-147.
87. Naughton, G. K., Mansbridge, J., Gentzkow, G., 1997b, "A Metabolically Active Human Dermal Replacement for the Treatment of Diabetic Foot Ulcers," Bioartificial Organs, Vol. 21, No. 11, pp. 1203-1210.
88. Naughton, G. K., Naughton, B., 1990, "Three-Dimensional Cell and Tissue Culture System," U.S. Patent 4, 963,489.
89. Nathan, P., and MacMillan, B. G., 1976, "Burn Wounds: Selection and Preservation of Skin, Natural Products, Blood, and Blood Products for Burn Therapy," CRC Critical Reviews of Clinical Lab Science, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1-31.
90. Newton, H., Fisher, J., Arnold, J. R., Pegg, D. E., Faddy, M. J., and Gosden, R. G., 1998, "Permeation of Human Ovarian Tissue with Cryoprotective Agents in Preparation for Cryopreservation," Human Reproduction, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 376-380.
91. Parsell, D. A. and Lindquist, S., 1994, "Heat Shock Proteins and Stress Tolerance," Cold Spring Harbor Symposium in Quantitative Biology, The Biology of Heat Shock Proteins and Molecular Chaperones, pp. 457-494.
92. Parenteau, N., 1999, "Skin: The First Tissue-Engineered Products, The Organogenesis Story," Scientific American, Vol. 280, No. 4, pp. 83-84.
93. Pegg, D. E., Wusteman, M.C., and Boylan, S., 1997, "Fractures in Cryopreserved Elastic Arteries," Cryobiology, Vol. 34, pp. 183-192.
94. Perry, V. P., 1966a, "A Review of Skin Preservation," Cryobiology, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 109-130.
95. Perry, V. P., 1966b, "Description of Current Tissue Bank Methods of Skin Preservation," Cryobiology, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 178-191.
96. Pinney, E., Liu, K., Sheeman, B., and Mansbridge, J., 1999, "Human Three-Dimensional Fibroblast Cultures Express Angiogenic Activity," in press.
97. Pitt, R. E., 1992, "Thermodynamics and Intracellular Ice Formation," In: Steponkus, P., Ed., Advances in Low-Temperature Biology (Vol. 1), London, JAI Press, pp. 63-99.
98. Polge, C., Wilmut, I., and Towson, L. E. A., 1974, "The Low Temperature Preservation of Cow, Sheep and Pig Embryos," Cryobiology, Vol. 11, pp. 560-568.
99. Pollak, R. A., Edington, H., Jensen J. L., Kroeker, R. O., and Gentzkow, G. D., 1997, "A Human Dermal Replacement for the Treatment of Diabetic Foot Ulcers," Wounds, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 175-183.
100. Porsche A. M., Körber, C., Rau, G., 1991, "Freeze-thaw Behavior of Cultured (Bovine Corneal) Endothelial Cells: Suspensions vs. Monolayer," Cryobiology, Vol. 28, p. 545.
101. Purdue, G. F., Hunt, J. L., Still, J. M., Jr., Law, E. J., Herndon, D. N., Goldfarb, W., Schiller, W. R., Hansbrough, J. F., Hickerson, W. L., Himel, H. N., Kealey, P., Twomey, J., Missavage, A. E., Solem, L. D., Davis, M., Totoritis, M., and Gentzkow, G. D., "A Multicenter Clinical Trial of a Biosynthetic Skin Replacement, Dermagraft-TC, Compared with Cryopreserved Human Cadaver Skin for Temporary Coverage of Excised Burn Wounds," Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation, Vol. 18, pp. 52-57.
102. Rabin, Y., Olson, P., Taylor, M. J., Steif, P. S., Julian, T. B., and Wolmark, N., 1997, "Gross Damage Accumulation on Frozen Rabbit Liver Due to Mechanical Stress at Cryogenic Temperatures," Cryobiology, Vol. 34, pp. 394-405.
103. Roberts, M., 1976, "The Role of the Skin Bank," Annual Reviews College of Surgery England, Vol. 58, No. 1, pp. 70-74.
104. Roth, M., Soler, M., Hornung, M., Emmons, L. R., Stulz, P., and Perruchoud, A.P., 1992, "Cell Cultures from Cryopreserved Human Lung Tissue," Tissue Cell, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp.455-459.
105. Rowley, S. D., and Anderson, G. L., 1993, "Effect of DMSO Exposure Without Cryopreservation on Hematopoietic Progenitor Cells," Bone Marrow Transplant, Vol. 11, No. 5, pp. 389-393.
106. Rubinsky, B., 1989, "The Energy Equation for Freezing of Biological Tissue," Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 111, pp. 988-997.
107. Rubinsky, B., Cravalho, E. G., and Mikic, B., 1980, "Thermal Stresses in Frozen Organs," Cryobiology, Vol. 17, pp. 66-74.
108. Rusotti, G., Brieva, T. A., Toner, M. and Yarmush, M. L. 1996, "Induction of Tolerance to Hypothermia by Previous Heat Shock Using Human Fibroblasts in Culture," Cryobiology, Vol. 33, pp. 567-580.
109. Shi, H., Tsai, W. B., Garrison, M. D., Ferrari, S., and Ratner, B. D., 1999, "Template-Imprinted Nanostructured Surfaces for Protein Recognition," Nature, Vol., 398, No. 6728, pp. 593-597.
110. Silbert, J. A., 1972, "Large-Scale Preservation of Human Semen," Cryobiology, Vol 9, No. 6, pp. 556-558.
111. Sorensen, B., and Jemec, B., 1973, "Freeze Drying of Skin. In Vitro Studies of Vitality," Scandinavian Journal of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 35-38.
112. Szell, A., and Shelton, J. N., 1986, "Role of Equilibration Before Rapid Freezing of Mouse Embryos," Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 699-703.
113. Teasdale, B., Sieber, V. K., Riches, D. J., and Nanchahal, J., 1993, "Cryopreservation of Cultured Dermal Fibroblast Impregnated Collagen Gels," Burns, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 406-410.
114. Toner, M., Cravahlo, E. G., Stachecki, J., et al., 1993, "Nonequilibrium Freezing of One-cell Mouse Embryos," Biophysics Journal, Vol. 64, pp. 1908-1921.
115. Trent, J. F., and Kirsner, R. S., 1998, "Tissue Engineered Skin: Apligraf, A Bi-Layered Living Skin Equivalent," International Journal of Clinical Practice, Vol. 52, No. 6, pp. 408-413.
116. Triglia, D., Sherard-Braa, S., Donnelly, T., et al., 1991, "A Three Dimensional Human Dermal Model Substrate for In Vitro Toxicological Studies," In: Goldberg, A. M., Ed., Alternative Methods in Toxicology, Vol. 8, Mary Ann Liebert Inc., New York, pp. 351-362.
117. th Supplement, "Sterility Testing".
118. Wedbush Morgan, 1999, "Biotechnology in Wound Care," January, p. 5.
119. Wilkerson Group, Inc., 1992, "Research on Market Potential for Tissue Engineering," February.
120. Woelders, H., Matthijs, A., and Engel, B, 1997, "Effects of Trehalose and Sucrose, Osmolality of the Freezing Medium, and Cooling Rate on Viability and Intactness of Bull Sperm after Freezing and Thawing," Cryobiology, Vol., 35, No. 2 pp. 93-105.
121. Wusteman, M. C. Boylan, S., and Pegg, D. E., 1996, "The Effect of Cooling Rate and Temperature on the Toxicity of Ethylene Glycol in the Rabbit Internal Carotid Artery," Cryobiology, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 423-429.
122. Wusteman, M. C., Boylan, S., and Pegg, D. E., 1997, "Cryopreservation of Rabbit Corneas in Dimethyl Sulfoxide," Investigative Ophthalmology, Vol. 38, No. 10, pp. 1934-1943.
123. Yarmush, M. L., Toner, M., Dunn, J. C. Y., Rotem, A., Hubel, A., and Tompkins, R. G., 1992, "Hepatic Tissue Engineering," Annals of the New York Academy of Science, Vol. 665, pp. 238-252.
124. Zieger, M. A., Tredget, E. E., and McGann, L. E., 1996, "Mechanisms of Cryoinjury and Cryoprotectioin in Split-Thickness Skin," Cryobiology, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 376-389.