Ethnicity and pluralism: An exploration with reference to Indian cases

Canadian Journal of Political Science

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 715-744

  Subramanian, Narendra ^a  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033267713     PISSN: 00084239     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0008423900016966     Document Type: Article

References (76)

1. See Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); and Donald Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
2. See Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); and Donald Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
3. See, for instance, the discussion of official language policies in David Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); and of conflict management strategy in Paul Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison (New Delhi: Sage, 1991).
4. See, for instance, the discussion of official language policies in David Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); and of conflict management strategy in Paul Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison (New Delhi: Sage, 1991).
5. Lijphart lists an extensive list of countries where he claims ethnic power-sharing worked (Arend Lijphart, "The Puzzle of Indian Democracy: A Consociational Interpretation," American Political Science Review 90 [1996], 258-59).
6. Donald Horowitz, A Democratic South Africa? Constitutional Engineering in a Divided Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); and Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
7. Donald Horowitz, A Democratic South Africa? Constitutional Engineering in a Divided Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); and Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
8. Horowitz provides a sophisticated account along these lines (Ethnic Groups in Conflict).
9. Atul Kohli, "Can Democracies Accommodate Ethnic Nationalism? The Rise and Decline of Self-Determination Movements," The Journal of Asian Studies 56 (1997), 325-44; Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism; and Myron Weiner, The Indian Paradox: Essays in Indian Politics (Delhi: Sage, 1991), 21-37, 77-95.
10. Atul Kohli, "Can Democracies Accommodate Ethnic Nationalism? The Rise and Decline of Self-Determination Movements," The Journal of Asian Studies 56 (1997), 325-44; Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism; and Myron Weiner, The Indian Paradox: Essays in Indian Politics (Delhi: Sage, 1991), 21-37, 77-95.
11. Atul Kohli, "Can Democracies Accommodate Ethnic Nationalism? The Rise and Decline of Self-Determination Movements," The Journal of Asian Studies 56 (1997), 325-44; Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism; and Myron Weiner, The Indian Paradox: Essays in Indian Politics (Delhi: Sage, 1991), 21-37, 77-95.
12. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 111-237; Gurharpal Singh, "Punjab since 1984: Disorder, Order, and Legitimacy," Asian Survey 36 (1996), 410-21; Gurharpal Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984: A Reassessment," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18 (1995), 476-93; Sumantra Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination and a Just Peace (Delhi: Sage, 1997); and Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hopes of Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
13. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 111-237; Gurharpal Singh, "Punjab since 1984: Disorder, Order, and Legitimacy," Asian Survey 36 (1996), 410-21; Gurharpal Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984: A Reassessment," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18 (1995), 476-93; Sumantra Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination and a Just Peace (Delhi: Sage, 1997); and Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hopes of Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
14. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 111-237; Gurharpal Singh, "Punjab since 1984: Disorder, Order, and Legitimacy," Asian Survey 36 (1996), 410-21; Gurharpal Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984: A Reassessment," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18 (1995), 476-93; Sumantra Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination and a Just Peace (Delhi: Sage, 1997); and Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hopes of Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
15. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 111-237; Gurharpal Singh, "Punjab since 1984: Disorder, Order, and Legitimacy," Asian Survey 36 (1996), 410-21; Gurharpal Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984: A Reassessment," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18 (1995), 476-93; Sumantra Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination and a Just Peace (Delhi: Sage, 1997); and Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hopes of Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
16. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 111-237; Gurharpal Singh, "Punjab since 1984: Disorder, Order, and Legitimacy," Asian Survey 36 (1996), 410-21; Gurharpal Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984: A Reassessment," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18 (1995), 476-93; Sumantra Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination and a Just Peace (Delhi: Sage, 1997); and Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hopes of Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
17. Myron Weiner, Party Building in a New Nation: The Indian National Congress (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967). The Congress party in Gujarat and the communists in Kerala were among the exceptions.
18. T. N. Madan, "Secularism in Its Place," The Journal of Asian Studies 46 (1987), 747-59; Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse? (London: Zed, 1986), 85-166; and Partha Chatterjee, "Secularism and Toleration," Economic and Political Weekly 29 (1994), 1768-77.
19. T. N. Madan, "Secularism in Its Place," The Journal of Asian Studies 46 (1987), 747-59; Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse? (London: Zed, 1986), 85-166; and Partha Chatterjee, "Secularism and Toleration," Economic and Political Weekly 29 (1994), 1768-77.
20. T. N. Madan, "Secularism in Its Place," The Journal of Asian Studies 46 (1987), 747-59; Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse? (London: Zed, 1986), 85-166; and Partha Chatterjee, "Secularism and Toleration," Economic and Political Weekly 29 (1994), 1768-77.
21. V. M. Dandekar and N. Rath, "Poverty in India: Dimensions and Trends," Economic and Political Weekly of India 6 (1971), 25-48, 106-46; and T. N. Srinivasan and Pranab Bardhan, eds., Rural Poverty in South Asia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
22. V. M. Dandekar and N. Rath, "Poverty in India: Dimensions and Trends," Economic and Political Weekly of India 6 (1971), 25-48, 106-46; and T. N. Srinivasan and Pranab Bardhan, eds., Rural Poverty in South Asia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
23. See Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) on Hindu revivalism; Harjot Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994) and Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984" and "Punjab since 1984" about Sikh revivalism; and Narendra Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization: Political Parties, Citizens and Democracy in South India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999) regarding Dravidianism.
24. See Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) on Hindu revivalism; Harjot Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994) and Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984" and "Punjab since 1984" about Sikh revivalism; and Narendra Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization: Political Parties, Citizens and Democracy in South India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999) regarding Dravidianism.
25. See Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) on Hindu revivalism; Harjot Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994) and Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984" and "Punjab since 1984" about Sikh revivalism; and Narendra Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization: Political Parties, Citizens and Democracy in South India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999) regarding Dravidianism.
26. See Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) on Hindu revivalism; Harjot Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994) and Singh, "The Punjab Crisis since 1984" and "Punjab since 1984" about Sikh revivalism; and Narendra Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization: Political Parties, Citizens and Democracy in South India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999) regarding Dravidianism.
27. Support for the Muslim Conference, which alone favoured amalgamation with Pakistan, was concentrated in Azad Kashmir (the portion occupied by Pakistan) after 1948.
28. Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir, 32-36, 173-74.
29. Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries; Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 167-87; and Singh, "Punjab since 1984."
30. Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries; Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 167-87; and Singh, "Punjab since 1984."
31. Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries; Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 167-87; and Singh, "Punjab since 1984."
32. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalisms, 174-76, 182-83.
33. Jaffrelot, Hindu Nationalist Movement; and Tapan Basu, P. K. Datta, Sumit Sarkar, Tanika Sarkar and Sambuddha Sen, Khakhi Shorts and Saffron Flags: A Critique of the Hindu Right (Delhi: Orient Longman, 1993).
34. Jaffrelot, Hindu Nationalist Movement; and Tapan Basu, P. K. Datta, Sumit Sarkar, Tanika Sarkar and Sambuddha Sen, Khakhi Shorts and Saffron Flags: A Critique of the Hindu Right (Delhi: Orient Longman, 1993).
35. The banning of some Hindu revivalist organizations after the assassination of Gandhi and after the destruction of the Babri Masjid was not backed by systematic crackdowns.
36. Thomas Blom Hansen and Christophe Jaffrelot, eds., The BJP and the Compulsions of Politics in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998).
37. Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization, 98-121, 153-54.
38. Ibid., 192-97; and Jyotirindra Dasgupta, Language Conflict and National Development: Group Politics and National Language Policy in India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), 159-96.
39. Ibid., 192-97; and Jyotirindra Dasgupta, Language Conflict and National Development: Group Politics and National Language Policy in India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), 159-96.
40. A different view, which provides no suggestions for promoting pluralism in regions where it is weak, is advanced by Robert Putnam (Making Democracies Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993]).
41. Definition drawn from Edward Shils, The Intellectuals and the Powers and Other Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 404-07; Ernesto Laclau, Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory (London: New Left Books, 1977), 165-67, 172-76; and Christos Lyrintzis, "The Power of Populism: The Greek Case," European Journal of Political Research 15 (1987), 669-71.
42. Definition drawn from Edward Shils, The Intellectuals and the Powers and Other Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 404-07; Ernesto Laclau, Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory (London: New Left Books, 1977), 165-67, 172-76; and Christos Lyrintzis, "The Power of Populism: The Greek Case," European Journal of Political Research 15 (1987), 669-71.
43. Definition drawn from Edward Shils, The Intellectuals and the Powers and Other Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 404-07; Ernesto Laclau, Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory (London: New Left Books, 1977), 165-67, 172-76; and Christos Lyrintzis, "The Power of Populism: The Greek Case," European Journal of Political Research 15 (1987), 669-71.
44. Gleaned from C. N. Annadurai, Aariya Maayai [Aryan Mystification] (Tiruchi: Dravida Pannai, 1985); Annadurai, Thee Paravattum [Let the Fire Spread] (Madras: Bharathi, 1986); Annadurai, Zamin-Inam Ozhippu [The Abolition of Zamins and Inams] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Thambikku Annavin Kadithangal [Anna's Letters to His Younger Brother] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Panaththottam [Garden of Money] (Madras: Paari, 1985); and extensive interviews with activists.
45. Gleaned from C. N. Annadurai, Aariya Maayai [Aryan Mystification] (Tiruchi: Dravida Pannai, 1985); Annadurai, Thee Paravattum [Let the Fire Spread] (Madras: Bharathi, 1986); Annadurai, Zamin-Inam Ozhippu [The Abolition of Zamins and Inams] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Thambikku Annavin Kadithangal [Anna's Letters to His Younger Brother] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Panaththottam [Garden of Money] (Madras: Paari, 1985); and extensive interviews with activists.
46. Gleaned from C. N. Annadurai, Aariya Maayai [Aryan Mystification] (Tiruchi: Dravida Pannai, 1985); Annadurai, Thee Paravattum [Let the Fire Spread] (Madras: Bharathi, 1986); Annadurai, Zamin-Inam Ozhippu [The Abolition of Zamins and Inams] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Thambikku Annavin Kadithangal [Anna's Letters to His Younger Brother] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Panaththottam [Garden of Money] (Madras: Paari, 1985); and extensive interviews with activists.
47. Gleaned from C. N. Annadurai, Aariya Maayai [Aryan Mystification] (Tiruchi: Dravida Pannai, 1985); Annadurai, Thee Paravattum [Let the Fire Spread] (Madras: Bharathi, 1986); Annadurai, Zamin-Inam Ozhippu [The Abolition of Zamins and Inams] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Thambikku Annavin Kadithangal [Anna's Letters to His Younger Brother] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Panaththottam [Garden of Money] (Madras: Paari, 1985); and extensive interviews with activists.
48. Gleaned from C. N. Annadurai, Aariya Maayai [Aryan Mystification] (Tiruchi: Dravida Pannai, 1985); Annadurai, Thee Paravattum [Let the Fire Spread] (Madras: Bharathi, 1986); Annadurai, Zamin-Inam Ozhippu [The Abolition of Zamins and Inams] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Thambikku Annavin Kadithangal [Anna's Letters to His Younger Brother] (Madras: Paari, 1986); Annadurai, Panaththottam [Garden of Money] (Madras: Paari, 1985); and extensive interviews with activists.
49. Lyrintzis, "The Power of Populism," 670-72; Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner, eds., Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics (London: Macmillan, 1969); Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 20-21, 62-63; Joshua A. Fishman, "Nationality-Nationalism and Nation-Nationalism," in Joshua Fishman and Jyotirindra Dasgupta, eds., Language Problems of Developing Nations (New York: John Wiley, 1968), 39-51; and Friedrich Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 9-22.
50. Lyrintzis, "The Power of Populism," 670-72; Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner, eds., Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics (London: Macmillan, 1969); Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 20-21, 62-63; Joshua A. Fishman, "Nationality-Nationalism and Nation-Nationalism," in Joshua Fishman and Jyotirindra Dasgupta, eds., Language Problems of Developing Nations (New York: John Wiley, 1968), 39-51; and Friedrich Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 9-22.
51. Lyrintzis, "The Power of Populism," 670-72; Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner, eds., Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics (London: Macmillan, 1969); Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 20-21, 62-63; Joshua A. Fishman, "Nationality-Nationalism and Nation-Nationalism," in Joshua Fishman and Jyotirindra Dasgupta, eds., Language Problems of Developing Nations (New York: John Wiley, 1968), 39-51; and Friedrich Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 9-22.
52. Lyrintzis, "The Power of Populism," 670-72; Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner, eds., Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics (London: Macmillan, 1969); Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 20-21, 62-63; Joshua A. Fishman, "Nationality-Nationalism and Nation-Nationalism," in Joshua Fishman and Jyotirindra Dasgupta, eds., Language Problems of Developing Nations (New York: John Wiley, 1968), 39-51; and Friedrich Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 9-22.
53. Lyrintzis, "The Power of Populism," 670-72; Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner, eds., Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics (London: Macmillan, 1969); Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism, 20-21, 62-63; Joshua A. Fishman, "Nationality-Nationalism and Nation-Nationalism," in Joshua Fishman and Jyotirindra Dasgupta, eds., Language Problems of Developing Nations (New York: John Wiley, 1968), 39-51; and Friedrich Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 9-22.
54. Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization, 136-44; Barnett, Politics of Cultural Nationalism, 239-310; Sumathi Ramaswamy, Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891-1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) ; and Annadurai, Panaththottam.
55. Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization, 136-44; Barnett, Politics of Cultural Nationalism, 239-310; Sumathi Ramaswamy, Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891-1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) ; and Annadurai, Panaththottam.
56. Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization, 136-44; Barnett, Politics of Cultural Nationalism, 239-310; Sumathi Ramaswamy, Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891-1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) ; and Annadurai, Panaththottam.
57. Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization, 136-44; Barnett, Politics of Cultural Nationalism, 239-310; Sumathi Ramaswamy, Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891-1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) ; and Annadurai, Panaththottam.
58. For other typologies of populism, see Ionescu and Gellner, Populism, and J. B. Allcock, "Populism: A Brief Biography," Sociology 5 (1971), 371-87. Arun Swamy misleadingly claims to have initially conceptualized the kind of typology I adopt. See Arun R. Swamy, "Parties, Political Identities and the Absence of Mass Political Violence in South India," in Atul Kohli and Amrita Basu, eds., The State and Community Conflicts in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 109 (note 1). This typology was introduced in Narendra Subramanian, "Ethnicity, Populism and Pluralist Democracy: Mobilization and Representation in South India" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, MIT, 1993) and prefigured by discussion of the "moral economy" and "sons of the soil" outlooks in Narendra Subramanian, "Towards an Understanding of the Dravidian Movement" (unpublished Masters thesis, MIT, 1987).
59. For other typologies of populism, see Ionescu and Gellner, Populism, and J. B. Allcock, "Populism: A Brief Biography," Sociology 5 (1971), 371-87. Arun Swamy misleadingly claims to have initially conceptualized the kind of typology I adopt. See Arun R. Swamy, "Parties, Political Identities and the Absence of Mass Political Violence in South India," in Atul Kohli and Amrita Basu, eds., The State and Community Conflicts in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 109 (note 1). This typology was introduced in Narendra Subramanian, "Ethnicity, Populism and Pluralist Democracy: Mobilization and Representation in South India" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, MIT, 1993) and prefigured by discussion of the "moral economy" and "sons of the soil" outlooks in Narendra Subramanian, "Towards an Understanding of the Dravidian Movement" (unpublished Masters thesis, MIT, 1987).
60. For other typologies of populism, see Ionescu and Gellner, Populism, and J. B. Allcock, "Populism: A Brief Biography," Sociology 5 (1971), 371-87. Arun Swamy misleadingly claims to have initially conceptualized the kind of typology I adopt. See Arun R. Swamy, "Parties, Political Identities and the Absence of Mass Political Violence in South India," in Atul Kohli and Amrita Basu, eds., The State and Community Conflicts in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 109 (note 1). This typology was introduced in Narendra Subramanian, "Ethnicity, Populism and Pluralist Democracy: Mobilization and Representation in South India" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, MIT, 1993) and prefigured by discussion of the "moral economy" and "sons of the soil" outlooks in Narendra Subramanian, "Towards an Understanding of the Dravidian Movement" (unpublished Masters thesis, MIT, 1987).
61. For other typologies of populism, see Ionescu and Gellner, Populism, and J. B. Allcock, "Populism: A Brief Biography," Sociology 5 (1971), 371-87. Arun Swamy misleadingly claims to have initially conceptualized the kind of typology I adopt. See Arun R. Swamy, "Parties, Political Identities and the Absence of Mass Political Violence in South India," in Atul Kohli and Amrita Basu, eds., The State and Community Conflicts in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 109 (note 1). This typology was introduced in Narendra Subramanian, "Ethnicity, Populism and Pluralist Democracy: Mobilization and Representation in South India" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, MIT, 1993) and prefigured by discussion of the "moral economy" and "sons of the soil" outlooks in Narendra Subramanian, "Towards an Understanding of the Dravidian Movement" (unpublished Masters thesis, MIT, 1987).
62. For other typologies of populism, see Ionescu and Gellner, Populism, and J. B. Allcock, "Populism: A Brief Biography," Sociology 5 (1971), 371-87. Arun Swamy misleadingly claims to have initially conceptualized the kind of typology I adopt. See Arun R. Swamy, "Parties, Political Identities and the Absence of Mass Political Violence in South India," in Atul Kohli and Amrita Basu, eds., The State and Community Conflicts in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 109 (note 1). This typology was introduced in Narendra Subramanian, "Ethnicity, Populism and Pluralist Democracy: Mobilization and Representation in South India" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, MIT, 1993) and prefigured by discussion of the "moral economy" and "sons of the soil" outlooks in Narendra Subramanian, "Towards an Understanding of the Dravidian Movement" (unpublished Masters thesis, MIT, 1987).
63. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 108-15; Martin Marty and Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Kenneth Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Daniel Levine, ed., Religion and Political Conflict in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
64. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 108-15; Martin Marty and Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Kenneth Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Daniel Levine, ed., Religion and Political Conflict in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
65. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 108-15; Martin Marty and Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Kenneth Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Daniel Levine, ed., Religion and Political Conflict in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
66. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 108-15; Martin Marty and Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Kenneth Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Daniel Levine, ed., Religion and Political Conflict in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
67. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 108-15; Martin Marty and Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Kenneth Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Daniel Levine, ed., Religion and Political Conflict in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
68. J. D. Bell, Peasants in Power: Alexander Stamboliiski and the Bulgarian National Union, 1899-1928 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Nicos Mouzelis, Politics in the Semi-Periphery: Early Parliamentarism and Late Industrialization in Latin America and the Balkans (London: Macmillan, 1986), 35-38; and Stanley J. Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed? Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
69. J. D. Bell, Peasants in Power: Alexander Stamboliiski and the Bulgarian National Union, 1899-1928 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Nicos Mouzelis, Politics in the Semi-Periphery: Early Parliamentarism and Late Industrialization in Latin America and the Balkans (London: Macmillan, 1986), 35-38; and Stanley J. Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed? Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
70. J. D. Bell, Peasants in Power: Alexander Stamboliiski and the Bulgarian National Union, 1899-1928 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Nicos Mouzelis, Politics in the Semi-Periphery: Early Parliamentarism and Late Industrialization in Latin America and the Balkans (London: Macmillan, 1986), 35-38; and Stanley J. Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed? Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
71. Michael Coniff, ed., Latin American Populism in Comparative Perspective (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982).
72. The conclusions regarding voter alignments and variations in local mobilization are based on the ecological analysis of election results and case studies of mobilization and competition in five representative state legislative assembly constituencies.
73. Sara Dickey, "The Politics of Adulation: Cinema and the Production of Politicians in South India," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (1993), 340-72; M. S. S. Pandian, The Image Trap: M. G. Ramachandran in Film and Politics (Delhi: Sage, 1992); and Barbara Harriss, Meals and Noon Meals in South India: Food and Nutrition Policy in the Rural Food Economy of Tamil Nadu State (Madras: Madras Institute of Development Studies, 1986).
74. Sara Dickey, "The Politics of Adulation: Cinema and the Production of Politicians in South India," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (1993), 340-72; M. S. S. Pandian, The Image Trap: M. G. Ramachandran in Film and Politics (Delhi: Sage, 1992); and Barbara Harriss, Meals and Noon Meals in South India: Food and Nutrition Policy in the Rural Food Economy of Tamil Nadu State (Madras: Madras Institute of Development Studies, 1986).
75. Sara Dickey, "The Politics of Adulation: Cinema and the Production of Politicians in South India," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (1993), 340-72; M. S. S. Pandian, The Image Trap: M. G. Ramachandran in Film and Politics (Delhi: Sage, 1992); and Barbara Harriss, Meals and Noon Meals in South India: Food and Nutrition Policy in the Rural Food Economy of Tamil Nadu State (Madras: Madras Institute of Development Studies, 1986).
76. MGR was a non-Brahmin Malayali and thus within the scope of the broader definition of the Dravidian as a non-Brahmin South Indian, but this construction of ethnicity did not find broad acceptance.