The European Community's Trade Barrier Regulation Takes Shape: Is it Living Up to Expectations?

Journal of World Trade

Volumn 33, Issue 6, 1999, Pages 69-96

  MacLean, Robert M ^a  

^a CMS Cameron McKenna   (Belgium)

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EID: 0033264572     PISSN: 10116702     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.54648/trad1999045     Document Type: Article

References (88)

1. Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94, on Community procedures for the exercise of rights under international trade rules, in particular those established under the WTO, O.J. 349/71 (1994), as amended by Council Regulation (EC) 356/95, O.J. L41/3 (1995).
2. The exception to this general policy was Council Regulation (EEC) 2641/84, O.J. L252/1 (1984), the so-called New Commercial Policy Instrument. It reality, this instrument was rarely involved because of conceptual and procedural difficulties in its application.
3. See GATT, EC - Trade Policy Review Mechanism, vol. I. p. 225 (GATT: Geneva, 1994).
4. See, for example, European Commission, Report on US Barriers to Trade and Investment (1994), pp. 11-13.
5. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
6. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
7. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
8. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
9. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
10. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
11. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
12. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
13. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
14. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
15. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
16. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
17. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
18. US - Rules of Origin for Textile and Apparel Products, O.J. C351/6 (1996); US - Failure to Repeal the Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. C58/14 (1997); Argentina - Export and Import Restrictions on Raw Hides, Skins and Finished Leather, O.J. C59/6 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions on the Sale of Cognac, O.J. C103/3 (1997); Japan - Restrictive Practices in the Leather Sector, O.J. C110/2 (1997); US - Cross-Border Licensing Rights for Music, O.J. C177/ 5 (1997); Brazil - Import Licensing Requirements for Steel Plates, O.J. C197/2 (1997); Brazil - Restrictions in Relation to Trade in Textile Products, O.J. C63/2 (1998); Korea - Measures Affecting the Import, Distribution and Advertising of Cosmetic Products, O.J. C154/12 (1998); Chile - Restrictions in Relation to the Transit and Transshipment of Swordfish, O.J. C215/2 (1998); Brazil - Restrictions on Imports of Sorbitol, O.J. C361/13 (1998); Brazil - PROEX Export Financing Programme, O.J. C108/33 (1999); Canada - Restrictions on Imports of Parma Ham, O.J. C176/6 (1999); and Korea - Measures Restricting Trade in Pharmaceutical Products, O.J. C218/3 (1999).
19. Stewart, A.J. (Head of Unit, DG IE3 (TBR),), "Market Opening - The Trade Barriers Regulation", address to the 11th Annual European Trade Law Conference, 5 May 1998.
20. This is because the conduct of these investigations is relatively transparent, starting with the publication of a Notice setting out the grounds of each complaint, and ending with a formal Commission decision confirming its findings and, where appropriate, the initiation of WTO dispute settlement proceedings.
21. In essence, Community industries are composed of all producers or providers of services whose combined output constitutes a major proportion of the total Community production of the products or services in question. A Community enterprise, on the other hand, means a single company or firm or a group or association of such companies or firms; Art. 2(5) and (6), Council Regulation 3286/94.
22. See the Chilean Swordfish case and the Brazilian PROEX Export Financing case, as note 5, above. In the first case, the complaint was lodged by a Spanish trade association which represented a "major proportion" of the Community's frozen swordfish industry which was in fact located exclusively in the Spanish region of Galicia. In the second case, the complaint was submitted by the only Community producer of regional aircraft and, consequently, it qualified as both a Community enterprise and as the relevant industry.
23. For example, see the Brazilian Sorbitol case, as note 5, above.
24. For example, the US Antidumping Act case (EC steel sector); the Brazilian Cognac case (EC cognac industry); and the Korean Cosmetics case (EC perfumes, cosmetics and toiletry products), as note 5, above.
25. See, for example, the US Textile and Apparel case, the Canadian Parma Ham case, the Brazilian Textiles case and the Brazilian Cognac case, as note 5, above.
26. Art. 2(6), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
27. Art. 1, Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
28. This objective does not appear in the Commission's original proposal for a TBR; see Proposal for a Council Regulation Strengthening the Common Commercial Policy, in Particular with Regard to Protection against Illicit Commercial Practices, COM (94) 414 (Final).
29. For example, dumping is dealt with under Council Regulation (EC) 384/96, O.J. L56/1 (1996), as amended, subsidised products under Council Regulation (EC) 2026/97, O.J. L288/1 (1997) and counterfeit and pirated products under Council Regulation (EQ 3295/94, O.J. L341/8 (1994).
30. Brazilian PROEX Export Financing case, as note 5, above.
31. Art. 2(1), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
32. These practices are considered in more detail in sections III.A and C, below.
33. Art. II(1), GATT 1994.
34. For example, Arts I(1), III(2), VII, VIII, X and XI, GATT 1994.
35. Commission Decision 98/618/EC concerning measures maintained by the Republic of Argentina on the export of bovine hides and imports of finished leather, O.J. L295/46 (1998).
36. For example, Arts VIII and XI, GATT 1994.
37. A similar form of discrimination was also alleged in the Argentinean Raw Hides and Finished Leather case, as note 5, above, where the complainants pointed out that an additional VAT charge of 9-10 percent, together with an advanced payment system for turnover tax, applied only to imports of leather products and not to domestically-produced materials.
38. See also the Korean Pharmaceutical: case, as note 5, above.
39. Art. II(2) of the WTO Agreement, reproduced in O.J. L336/11 (1994).
40. The Agreement on Agriculture, the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing, the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, the Antidumping Agreement, the Agreement on Customs Valuation, the Agreement on Preshipment Inspection, the Agreement on Rules of Origin, the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures and the Agreement on Safeguard Measures.
41. European Commission, Press Release IP/97/744 (7 August 1997).
42. Agreement on Interpretation of Article VI of the GATT 1969, GATT BISD, 15th Supplement, 74 (1968); Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT 1979, GATT BISD, 26th Supplement, 171 (1980); and Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT 1994.
43. Agreement on Interpretation of Article VI of the GATT 1969, GATT BISD, 15th Supplement, 74 (1968); Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT 1979, GATT BISD, 26th Supplement, 171 (1980); and Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT 1994.
44. Agreement on Interpretation of Article VI of the GATT 1969, GATT BISD, 15th Supplement, 74 (1968); Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT 1979, GATT BISD, 26th Supplement, 171 (1980); and Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT 1994.
45. This also probably explains why the complaint was brought under the Art. 3 procedure specified for Community industries as opposed to the Art. 4 procedure which applies to Community enterprises.
46. Commission Decision 98/354/EC, concerning obstacles to trade presented by Japanese practices in respect of imports of leather. O.J. L159/65 (1998).
47. Art. 2(2), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
48. Art. 3(2), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
49. Art. 4(2), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
50. Art. 2(4), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
51. Art. 10(4), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
52. See also US Textile and Apparel case, as note 5, above.
53. See also Argentinean Raw Hides and Finished Leather case, as note 5, above.
54. Art. 2(4), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
55. See the US Cross-Border Music Licensing case, as note 5, above.
56. See, for example, the Korean Pharmaceuticals case, as note 5, above.
57. Art. 12(1), Council Regulation (EC) 3286 (1994).
58. Council Regulation (EC) 384/96, on protection against dumped imports, O.J. L56/1 (1996), Art. 21(1); and Council Regulation (EC) 2026/97, on protection against subsidbed imports, O.J. L288/1 (1997), Art. 31(1).
59. Council Regulation (EC) 384/96, on protection against dumped imports, O.J. L56/1 (1996), Art. 21(1); and Council Regulation (EC) 2026/97, on protection against subsidbed imports, O.J. L288/1 (1997), Art. 31(1).
60. See generally, MacLean, R.M. and R.J. Eccles, A Change of Style Not Substance: The Community's New Approach Towards the Community Interest Test in Anti-Dumping and Anti-Subsidy Law (1999) 36 CMLR 123.
61. Similar statements have been made in a number of cases, for example the US Anti-Dumping Act case; the Korean Cosmetics case; and the US Textile and Apparel case, as note 5, above.
62. Art. 11(1), Council Regulation (EC) 3286 (1994).
63. Art. 11(2), Council Regulation (EC) 3286 (1994).
64. European Commission, Press Release IP/97/744 (7 August 1997).
65. Commission Decision 96/40/EC, suspending proceedings into piracy of Community sound recordings in Thailand, O.J. L11/7 (1996); and Commission Decision 96/714/EC, terminating proceedings into the imposition by Turkey of a charge known as the Mass Housing Fund Levy, O.J. L326/71 (1996).
66. Commission Decision 96/40/EC, suspending proceedings into piracy of Community sound recordings in Thailand, O.J. L11/7 (1996); and Commission Decision 96/714/EC, terminating proceedings into the imposition by Turkey of a charge known as the Mass Housing Fund Levy, O.J. L326/71 (1996).
67. See Commission Decision 97/162/EC, on US rules of origin for textile products, O.J. L62/43 (1997) and, subsequently, US - Measures Affecting Textile and Apparel Products (WT/DS151/1).
68. See Commission Decision 97/162/EC, on US rules of origin for textile products, O.J. L62/43 (1997) and, subsequently, US - Measures Affecting Textile and Apparel Products (WT/DS151/1).
69. Brazilian Textiles case, as note 5, above.
70. Commission Decision 98/277/EC concerning the failure of the United States to repeal its Antidumping Act of 1916, O.J. L126/36 (1998).
71. Commission Decision 98/618/EC concerning measures maintained by the Republic of Argentina on the export of bovine hides and imports of finished leather, O.J. L295/46 (1998).
72. Commission Decision 98/354/EC, concerning obstacles to trade presented by Japanese practices in respect of imports of leather, O.J. L156/65 (1998).
73. Commission Decision 98/731/EC, concerning section 110(5) of the Copyright Act of the United States, O.J. L346/60 (1998).
74. Commission Decision 99/234/EC concerning the Brazilian non-automatic import licensing system, O.J. L86/22 (1999).
75. United States - Section 110(5) of the US Copyright Act (WTO Case WT/DS 160); United States - Antidumping Act of 1916 (WTO Case WT/DS 136/1); Argentina - Measures on the Export of Bovine Hides and the Import of Finished Leather (WTO Case WT/DS 155); and Japan - Tariff Quotas and Subsidies Affecting Leather (WTO Case WT/DS 147/1).
76. United States - Section 110(5) of the US Copyright Act (WTO Case WT/DS 160); United States - Antidumping Act of 1916 (WTO Case WT/DS 136/1); Argentina - Measures on the Export of Bovine Hides and the Import of Finished Leather (WTO Case WT/DS 155); and Japan - Tariff Quotas and Subsidies Affecting Leather (WTO Case WT/DS 147/1).
77. United States - Section 110(5) of the US Copyright Act (WTO Case WT/DS 160); United States - Antidumping Act of 1916 (WTO Case WT/DS 136/1); Argentina - Measures on the Export of Bovine Hides and the Import of Finished Leather (WTO Case WT/DS 155); and Japan - Tariff Quotas and Subsidies Affecting Leather (WTO Case WT/DS 147/1).
78. United States - Section 110(5) of the US Copyright Act (WTO Case WT/DS 160); United States - Antidumping Act of 1916 (WTO Case WT/DS 136/1); Argentina - Measures on the Export of Bovine Hides and the Import of Finished Leather (WTO Case WT/DS 155); and Japan - Tariff Quotas and Subsidies Affecting Leather (WTO Case WT/DS 147/1).
79. Art. 12(3), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94. The Community may, however, adopt other measures, if appropriate, as this list of commercial policy measures is non-exhaustive.
80. Art. 12(2), Council Regulation (EC) 3286/94.
81. As note 59, above.
82. Sir Leon Brittan, Opening Address to the European Commission's Market Access Symposium, Brussels, 4 November 1997, pp. 6-7.
83. On decisions relating to authorisations for the suspension of concessions, see European Union - Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas, complaints by Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico and the United States (WT/DS27); and European Union - Measures Affecting Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), complaints by Canada and the United States (WT/DS48).
84. On decisions relating to authorisations for the suspension of concessions, see European Union - Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas, complaints by Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico and the United States (WT/DS27); and European Union - Measures Affecting Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), complaints by Canada and the United States (WT/DS48).
85. See presentation by Sir Leon Brittan, "Removing Barriers to Global Trade: The EU's Market Access Strategy", speech to the Brussels Chamber of Commerce, Brussels, 28 January 1999.
86. In Re the Uruguay Round Treaties, Opinion 1/94 [1995] ECR I; [1995] 1 CMLR 205.
87. However, as the Treaty of Amsterdam amends Art. 133 (ex Art. 113) of the EC Treaty to extend the competence of the Community in these fields, it is likely that this restriction will be lifted by the Commission in the near future.
88. See European Commission, The Global Challenge of International trade: A Market Access Strategy for the European Union, COM (96) 53, pp. 1-5 (1996).