The Gender Gap in Standard of Living After Divorce: Vanishingly Small?

Family Law Quarterly

Volumn 33, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 111-131

  Braver, Sanford L ^a  

^a ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 0033263950     PISSN: 0014729X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (77)

1. S.S. McLanahan et al., Child Support Enforcement and Child Well-Being: Greater Security or Greater Conflict?, in CHILD SUPPORT AND CHILD WELL-BEING (I. Garfinkel et al., eds. 1994).
2. P.R. Amato & B. Keith, Parental Divorce and the Well-Being of Children: A Meta Analysis, 100 PSYCH. BULL. 26 (1991).
3. CONSTANCE AHRONS, THE GOOD DIVORCE: KEEPING YOUR FAMILY TOGETHER WHEN YOUR MARRIAGE COMES APART (1994).
4. Martha Fineman, Implementing Equality: Ideology, Contradiction, and Social Change, WIS. L. REV. 789 (1983). Herma H. Kay, Equality and Difference: A Perspective on No-fault Divorce and Its Aftermath, 56 CINCINNATI L. REV. 1-90 (1987). Jana Singer, Divorce Reform and Gender Justice, 67 N.C. L. REV. 1103 (1989); Jane Rutherford, Duty in Divorce: Shared Income as a Path to Equality, 58 FORDHAM L. REV. 539 (1990).
5. Martha Fineman, Implementing Equality: Ideology, Contradiction, and Social Change, WIS. L. REV. 789 (1983). Herma H. Kay, Equality and Difference: A Perspective on No-fault Divorce and Its Aftermath, 56 CINCINNATI L. REV. 1-90 (1987). Jana Singer, Divorce Reform and Gender Justice, 67 N.C. L. REV. 1103 (1989); Jane Rutherford, Duty in Divorce: Shared Income as a Path to Equality, 58 FORDHAM L. REV. 539 (1990).
6. Martha Fineman, Implementing Equality: Ideology, Contradiction, and Social Change, WIS. L. REV. 789 (1983). Herma H. Kay, Equality and Difference: A Perspective on No-fault Divorce and Its Aftermath, 56 CINCINNATI L. REV. 1-90 (1987). Jana Singer, Divorce Reform and Gender Justice, 67 N.C. L. REV. 1103 (1989); Jane Rutherford, Duty in Divorce: Shared Income as a Path to Equality, 58 FORDHAM L. REV. 539 (1990).
7. Martha Fineman, Implementing Equality: Ideology, Contradiction, and Social Change, WIS. L. REV. 789 (1983). Herma H. Kay, Equality and Difference: A Perspective on No-fault Divorce and Its Aftermath, 56 CINCINNATI L. REV. 1-90 (1987). Jana Singer, Divorce Reform and Gender Justice, 67 N.C. L. REV. 1103 (1989); Jane Rutherford, Duty in Divorce: Shared Income as a Path to Equality, 58 FORDHAM L. REV. 539 (1990).
8. LENORE WEITZMAN, THE DIVORCE REVOLUTION: THE UNEXPECTED SOCIALAND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE FOR WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN AMERICA (1985)(quotation appearing on the book jacket)
9. Katherine Webster, AP Newswire story, May 1996
10. R.R. Peterson, A Re-Evaluation of the Economic Consequences of Divorce, 61 AM. SOC. REV. 528 (1996).
11. S.D. Hoffman & G.J. Duncan, What Are the Economic Consequences of Divorce, 25 DEMOGRAPHY 641 (1988).
12. J. Abraham, "The Divorce Revolution" Revisited: A Counter-Revolutionary Critique, 9 N. ILL. L.REV.251 (1989).
13. Webster, supra note 6
14. See generally supra note 4.
15. Irwin Garfinkel & M. Klawitter, The Effects of Routine Withholding of Child Support Collections, 9 J. POL'Y ANALYSIS & MGMT. 155 (1990); Office of Child Support Enforcement, Child Support Enforcement, Fifteenth Annual Report to Congress, For the Period Ending September 30, 1990; Jessica Pearson, Nancy Thoennes & P. Tjaden, Legislating adequacy: The Impact of Child Support Guidelines, 23 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 569 (1989).
16. Irwin Garfinkel & M. Klawitter, The Effects of Routine Withholding of Child Support Collections, 9 J. POL'Y ANALYSIS & MGMT. 155 (1990); Office of Child Support Enforcement, Child Support Enforcement, Fifteenth Annual Report to Congress, For the Period Ending September 30, 1990; Jessica Pearson, Nancy Thoennes & P. Tjaden, Legislating adequacy: The Impact of Child Support Guidelines, 23 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 569 (1989).
17. See, e.g., Ira M. Ellman, The Theory of Alimony, 77 CAL. L. REV. 1 (1989), and articles cited supra note 4.
18. K. Mahoney, Gender Bias in Family Law: Leveling the Playing Field for Women, 34 FAM. & CONCIL. CTS. REV. 198 (1996).
19. R D. Day & S. J. Bahr, Income Changes Following Divorce and Remarriage, 9 J. DIVORCE 75 (1986).
20. Webster, supra note 6.
21. See, e.g., Monica Allen, Child-State Jurisdiction: A Due Process Invitation to Reconsider Some Basic Family Law Assumptions, 26 FAM. L.Q. 293 (1992); Martha. L. Fineman, Illusive Equality: On Weitzman's Divorce Revolution, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 781 (1986); Barbara J. Lonsdorf, The Role of Coercion in Affecting Women's Inferior Outcomes in Divorce, 16 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 69 (1991); Marygold Melli, Constructing a Social Problem: The Post-Divorce Plight of Women and Children, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 759 (1986); Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, Towards a Revitalization of Family Law, 69 TEX. L. REV. 245 (1990); Nancy D. Polikoff, Review of The Divorce Revolution by Lenore J. Weitzman, 72 A.B.A.J. 112 (1986)("the serious research in this book should form the basis for much needed legal reforms"); Susan M. Okin, Economic Equality After Divorce, 38 DISSENT 383 (1991)(writing that the findings "are far less surprising than is the fact that people have been surprised by them").
22. See, e.g., Monica Allen, Child-State Jurisdiction: A Due Process Invitation to Reconsider Some Basic Family Law Assumptions, 26 FAM. L.Q. 293 (1992); Martha. L. Fineman, Illusive Equality: On Weitzman's Divorce Revolution, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 781 (1986); Barbara J. Lonsdorf, The Role of Coercion in Affecting Women's Inferior Outcomes in Divorce, 16 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 69 (1991); Marygold Melli, Constructing a Social Problem: The Post-Divorce Plight of Women and Children, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 759 (1986); Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, Towards a Revitalization of Family Law, 69 TEX. L. REV. 245 (1990); Nancy D. Polikoff, Review of The Divorce Revolution by Lenore J. Weitzman, 72 A.B.A.J. 112 (1986)("the serious research in this book should form the basis for much needed legal reforms"); Susan M. Okin, Economic Equality After Divorce, 38 DISSENT 383 (1991)(writing that the findings "are far less surprising than is the fact that people have been surprised by them").
23. See, e.g., Monica Allen, Child-State Jurisdiction: A Due Process Invitation to Reconsider Some Basic Family Law Assumptions, 26 FAM. L.Q. 293 (1992); Martha. L. Fineman, Illusive Equality: On Weitzman's Divorce Revolution, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 781 (1986); Barbara J. Lonsdorf, The Role of Coercion in Affecting Women's Inferior Outcomes in Divorce, 16 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 69 (1991); Marygold Melli, Constructing a Social Problem: The Post-Divorce Plight of Women and Children, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 759 (1986); Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, Towards a Revitalization of Family Law, 69 TEX. L. REV. 245 (1990); Nancy D. Polikoff, Review of The Divorce Revolution by Lenore J. Weitzman, 72 A.B.A.J. 112 (1986)("the serious research in this book should form the basis for much needed legal reforms"); Susan M. Okin, Economic Equality After Divorce, 38 DISSENT 383 (1991)(writing that the findings "are far less surprising than is the fact that people have been surprised by them").
24. See, e.g., Monica Allen, Child-State Jurisdiction: A Due Process Invitation to Reconsider Some Basic Family Law Assumptions, 26 FAM. L.Q. 293 (1992); Martha. L. Fineman, Illusive Equality: On Weitzman's Divorce Revolution, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 781 (1986); Barbara J. Lonsdorf, The Role of Coercion in Affecting Women's Inferior Outcomes in Divorce, 16 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 69 (1991); Marygold Melli, Constructing a Social Problem: The Post-Divorce Plight of Women and Children, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 759 (1986); Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, Towards a Revitalization of Family Law, 69 TEX. L. REV. 245 (1990); Nancy D. Polikoff, Review of The Divorce Revolution by Lenore J. Weitzman, 72 A.B.A.J. 112 (1986)("the serious research in this book should form the basis for much needed legal reforms"); Susan M. Okin, Economic Equality After Divorce, 38 DISSENT 383 (1991)(writing that the findings "are far less surprising than is the fact that people have been surprised by them").
25. See, e.g., Monica Allen, Child-State Jurisdiction: A Due Process Invitation to Reconsider Some Basic Family Law Assumptions, 26 FAM. L.Q. 293 (1992); Martha. L. Fineman, Illusive Equality: On Weitzman's Divorce Revolution, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 781 (1986); Barbara J. Lonsdorf, The Role of Coercion in Affecting Women's Inferior Outcomes in Divorce, 16 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 69 (1991); Marygold Melli, Constructing a Social Problem: The Post-Divorce Plight of Women and Children, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 759 (1986); Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, Towards a Revitalization of Family Law, 69 TEX. L. REV. 245 (1990); Nancy D. Polikoff, Review of The Divorce Revolution by Lenore J. Weitzman, 72 A.B.A.J. 112 (1986)("the serious research in this book should form the basis for much needed legal reforms"); Susan M. Okin, Economic Equality After Divorce, 38 DISSENT 383 (1991)(writing that the findings "are far less surprising than is the fact that people have been surprised by them").
26. See, e.g., Monica Allen, Child-State Jurisdiction: A Due Process Invitation to Reconsider Some Basic Family Law Assumptions, 26 FAM. L.Q. 293 (1992); Martha. L. Fineman, Illusive Equality: On Weitzman's Divorce Revolution, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 781 (1986); Barbara J. Lonsdorf, The Role of Coercion in Affecting Women's Inferior Outcomes in Divorce, 16 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 69 (1991); Marygold Melli, Constructing a Social Problem: The Post-Divorce Plight of Women and Children, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 759 (1986); Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, Towards a Revitalization of Family Law, 69 TEX. L. REV. 245 (1990); Nancy D. Polikoff, Review of The Divorce Revolution by Lenore J. Weitzman, 72 A.B.A.J. 112 (1986)("the serious research in this book should form the basis for much needed legal reforms"); Susan M. Okin, Economic Equality After Divorce, 38 DISSENT 383 (1991)(writing that the findings "are far less surprising than is the fact that people have been surprised by them").
27. See, e.g., Monica Allen, Child-State Jurisdiction: A Due Process Invitation to Reconsider Some Basic Family Law Assumptions, 26 FAM. L.Q. 293 (1992); Martha. L. Fineman, Illusive Equality: On Weitzman's Divorce Revolution, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 781 (1986); Barbara J. Lonsdorf, The Role of Coercion in Affecting Women's Inferior Outcomes in Divorce, 16 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 69 (1991); Marygold Melli, Constructing a Social Problem: The Post-Divorce Plight of Women and Children, A.B.A. FOUND. RES. J. 759 (1986); Barbara Bennett Woodhouse, Towards a Revitalization of Family Law, 69 TEX. L. REV. 245 (1990); Nancy D. Polikoff, Review of The Divorce Revolution by Lenore J. Weitzman, 72 A.B.A.J. 112 (1986)("the serious research in this book should form the basis for much needed legal reforms"); Susan M. Okin, Economic Equality After Divorce, 38 DISSENT 383 (1991)(writing that the findings "are far less surprising than is the fact that people have been surprised by them").
28. The findings are from, respectively: G.J. Duncan & S.D. Hoffman, Economic Consequences of Marital Instability, in HORIZONTAL EQUITY, UNCERTAINTY, AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING 427 (1985)[hereinafter HORIZONTAL EQUITY]; R.S. Weiss, The Impact of Marital Dissolution on Income and Consumption in Single-Parent Households, 46 MARRIAGE & FAM. 115 (1984); S.D. Hoffman & G.J. Duncan, A Reconsideration of the Economic Consequences of Marital Dissolution, 22 DEMOGRAPHY 485 (1985). S. L. Braver et al., Economic Hardship and Psychological Distress in Custodial Mothers, 12 J. DIVORCE 19-34 (1989); S. Bianchi, Family Disruption and Economic Hardship (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Series P-70, No. 23 1991); A. Sorenson, Estimating the Economic Consequences of Separation and Divorce: A Cautionary Tale from the United States, in THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE: THE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE (L. Weitzman & M. Maclean, eds. 1991).
29. The findings are from, respectively: G.J. Duncan & S.D. Hoffman, Economic Consequences of Marital Instability, in HORIZONTAL EQUITY, UNCERTAINTY, AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING 427 (1985)[hereinafter HORIZONTAL EQUITY]; R.S. Weiss, The Impact of Marital Dissolution on Income and Consumption in Single-Parent Households, 46 MARRIAGE & FAM. 115 (1984); S.D. Hoffman & G.J. Duncan, A Reconsideration of the Economic Consequences of Marital Dissolution, 22 DEMOGRAPHY 485 (1985). S. L. Braver et al., Economic Hardship and Psychological Distress in Custodial Mothers, 12 J. DIVORCE 19-34 (1989); S. Bianchi, Family Disruption and Economic Hardship (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Series P-70, No. 23 1991); A. Sorenson, Estimating the Economic Consequences of Separation and Divorce: A Cautionary Tale from the United States, in THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE: THE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE (L. Weitzman & M. Maclean, eds. 1991).
30. The findings are from, respectively: G.J. Duncan & S.D. Hoffman, Economic Consequences of Marital Instability, in HORIZONTAL EQUITY, UNCERTAINTY, AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING 427 (1985)[hereinafter HORIZONTAL EQUITY]; R.S. Weiss, The Impact of Marital Dissolution on Income and Consumption in Single-Parent Households, 46 MARRIAGE & FAM. 115 (1984); S.D. Hoffman & G.J. Duncan, A Reconsideration of the Economic Consequences of Marital Dissolution, 22 DEMOGRAPHY 485 (1985). S. L. Braver et al., Economic Hardship and Psychological Distress in Custodial Mothers, 12 J. DIVORCE 19-34 (1989); S. Bianchi, Family Disruption and Economic Hardship (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Series P-70, No. 23 1991); A. Sorenson, Estimating the Economic Consequences of Separation and Divorce: A Cautionary Tale from the United States, in THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE: THE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE (L. Weitzman & M. Maclean, eds. 1991).
31. The findings are from, respectively: G.J. Duncan & S.D. Hoffman, Economic Consequences of Marital Instability, in HORIZONTAL EQUITY, UNCERTAINTY, AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING 427 (1985)[hereinafter HORIZONTAL EQUITY]; R.S. Weiss, The Impact of Marital Dissolution on Income and Consumption in Single-Parent Households, 46 MARRIAGE & FAM. 115 (1984); S.D. Hoffman & G.J. Duncan, A Reconsideration of the Economic Consequences of Marital Dissolution, 22 DEMOGRAPHY 485 (1985). S. L. Braver et al., Economic Hardship and Psychological Distress in Custodial Mothers, 12 J. DIVORCE 19-34 (1989); S. Bianchi, Family Disruption and Economic Hardship (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Series P-70, No. 23 1991); A. Sorenson, Estimating the Economic Consequences of Separation and Divorce: A Cautionary Tale from the United States, in THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE: THE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE (L. Weitzman & M. Maclean, eds. 1991).
32. The findings are from, respectively: G.J. Duncan & S.D. Hoffman, Economic Consequences of Marital Instability, in HORIZONTAL EQUITY, UNCERTAINTY, AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING 427 (1985)[hereinafter HORIZONTAL EQUITY]; R.S. Weiss, The Impact of Marital Dissolution on Income and Consumption in Single-Parent Households, 46 MARRIAGE & FAM. 115 (1984); S.D. Hoffman & G.J. Duncan, A Reconsideration of the Economic Consequences of Marital Dissolution, 22 DEMOGRAPHY 485 (1985). S. L. Braver et al., Economic Hardship and Psychological Distress in Custodial Mothers, 12 J. DIVORCE 19-34 (1989); S. Bianchi, Family Disruption and Economic Hardship (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Series P-70, No. 23 1991); A. Sorenson, Estimating the Economic Consequences of Separation and Divorce: A Cautionary Tale from the United States, in THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE: THE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE (L. Weitzman & M. Maclean, eds. 1991).
33. The findings are from, respectively: G.J. Duncan & S.D. Hoffman, Economic Consequences of Marital Instability, in HORIZONTAL EQUITY, UNCERTAINTY, AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING 427 (1985)[hereinafter HORIZONTAL EQUITY]; R.S. Weiss, The Impact of Marital Dissolution on Income and Consumption in Single-Parent Households, 46 MARRIAGE & FAM. 115 (1984); S.D. Hoffman & G.J. Duncan, A Reconsideration of the Economic Consequences of Marital Dissolution, 22 DEMOGRAPHY 485 (1985). S. L. Braver et al., Economic Hardship and Psychological Distress in Custodial Mothers, 12 J. DIVORCE 19-34 (1989); S. Bianchi, Family Disruption and Economic Hardship (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Series P-70, No. 23 1991); A. Sorenson, Estimating the Economic Consequences of Separation and Divorce: A Cautionary Tale from the United States, in THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE: THE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE (L. Weitzman & M. Maclean, eds. 1991).
34. See, e.g., Hoffman & Duncan, supra note 8.
35. See Peterson, supra note 7.
36. Lenore Weitzman, The Economic Consequences of Divorce are Still Unequal, 61 AM. SOC. REV. 537 (1996).
37. Webster, supra note 6.
38. See, e.g., HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; M. David & T. Flory, Changes in Marital Status and Short-Term Income Dynamics, in INDIVIDUALS AND FAMILIES IN TRANSITION 15 (H.V. Beaton, D.A. Ganni, & D.T. Frankel, eds. 1989).
39. See, e.g., HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; M. David & T. Flory, Changes in Marital Status and Short-Term Income Dynamics, in INDIVIDUALS AND FAMILIES IN TRANSITION 15 (H.V. Beaton, D.A. Ganni, & D.T. Frankel, eds. 1989).
40. Sanford Braver et al., Economic Hardship and Psychological Distress in Custodial Mothers, 12 J. DIVORCE 19 (1989).
41. The Weitzman sample was even older than mine and less representative.
42. HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; Weiss, supra note 18; David & Flory, supra note 23.
43. HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; Weiss, supra note 18; David & Flory, supra note 23.
44. HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; Weiss, supra note 18; David & Flory, supra note 23.
45. Braver, et al., supra note 24; HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; Weiss, supra note 18; David & Flory, supra note 23.
46. Braver, et al., supra note 24; HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; Weiss, supra note 18; David & Flory, supra note 23.
47. Braver, et al., supra note 24; HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; Weiss, supra note 18; David & Flory, supra note 23.
48. Braver, et al., supra note 24; HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; Weiss, supra note 18; David & Flory, supra note 23.
49. A full description of the sample, and sampling methods, as well as our findings substantiating the representativeness of the sample is reported in Sanford Braver & R.C. Bay, Assessing and Compensating for Self-Selection Bias (Nonrepresentativeness) of the Family Research Sample, 54 J. MARR. & FAM. 925 (1992).
50. Id.
51. See, e.g., Sanford L. Braver, P.J. Fitzpatrick & R.C. Bay, Noncustodial Parent's Report of Child Support Payments, 40 FAM. REL. 180 (1991); S.A. Wolchik, A.M. Fenaughty & S.L. Braver, Residential and Nonresidential Parents' Perspectives on Visitation Problems, 45 FAM. REL. 230 (1996); R.C. Bay & S.L. Braver, Perceived Control of the Divorce Settlement Process and Interparental Conflict, 39 FAM. REL. 382 (1990); S.L. Braver, M. Whitley & C. Ng, Who Divorced Whom: Methodological and Theoretical Issues, 20 J. DIVORCE& REMARRIAGE 1 (1993); V.L. Sheets & S.L. Braver, Gender Differences in Satisfaction with Divorce Decrees, 45 FAM. REL. 336 (1996); S.L. Braver et al., A Longitudinal Study of Noncustodial Parents: Parents Without Children, 7 J. FAM. PSYCH. 9 (1993).
52. See, e.g., Sanford L. Braver, P.J. Fitzpatrick & R.C. Bay, Noncustodial Parent's Report of Child Support Payments, 40 FAM. REL. 180 (1991); S.A. Wolchik, A.M. Fenaughty & S.L. Braver, Residential and Nonresidential Parents' Perspectives on Visitation Problems, 45 FAM. REL. 230 (1996); R.C. Bay & S.L. Braver, Perceived Control of the Divorce Settlement Process and Interparental Conflict, 39 FAM. REL. 382 (1990); S.L. Braver, M. Whitley & C. Ng, Who Divorced Whom: Methodological and Theoretical Issues, 20 J. DIVORCE& REMARRIAGE 1 (1993); V.L. Sheets & S.L. Braver, Gender Differences in Satisfaction with Divorce Decrees, 45 FAM. REL. 336 (1996); S.L. Braver et al., A Longitudinal Study of Noncustodial Parents: Parents Without Children, 7 J. FAM. PSYCH. 9 (1993).
53. See, e.g., Sanford L. Braver, P.J. Fitzpatrick & R.C. Bay, Noncustodial Parent's Report of Child Support Payments, 40 FAM. REL. 180 (1991); S.A. Wolchik, A.M. Fenaughty & S.L. Braver, Residential and Nonresidential Parents' Perspectives on Visitation Problems, 45 FAM. REL. 230 (1996); R.C. Bay & S.L. Braver, Perceived Control of the Divorce Settlement Process and Interparental Conflict, 39 FAM. REL. 382 (1990); S.L. Braver, M. Whitley & C. Ng, Who Divorced Whom: Methodological and Theoretical Issues, 20 J. DIVORCE& REMARRIAGE 1 (1993); V.L. Sheets & S.L. Braver, Gender Differences in Satisfaction with Divorce Decrees, 45 FAM. REL. 336 (1996); S.L. Braver et al., A Longitudinal Study of Noncustodial Parents: Parents Without Children, 7 J. FAM. PSYCH. 9 (1993).
54. See, e.g., Sanford L. Braver, P.J. Fitzpatrick & R.C. Bay, Noncustodial Parent's Report of Child Support Payments, 40 FAM. REL. 180 (1991); S.A. Wolchik, A.M. Fenaughty & S.L. Braver, Residential and Nonresidential Parents' Perspectives on Visitation Problems, 45 FAM. REL. 230 (1996); R.C. Bay & S.L. Braver, Perceived Control of the Divorce Settlement Process and Interparental Conflict, 39 FAM. REL. 382 (1990); S.L. Braver, M. Whitley & C. Ng, Who Divorced Whom: Methodological and Theoretical Issues, 20 J. DIVORCE& REMARRIAGE 1 (1993); V.L. Sheets & S.L. Braver, Gender Differences in Satisfaction with Divorce Decrees, 45 FAM. REL. 336 (1996); S.L. Braver et al., A Longitudinal Study of Noncustodial Parents: Parents Without Children, 7 J. FAM. PSYCH. 9 (1993).
55. See, e.g., Sanford L. Braver, P.J. Fitzpatrick & R.C. Bay, Noncustodial Parent's Report of Child Support Payments, 40 FAM. REL. 180 (1991); S.A. Wolchik, A.M. Fenaughty & S.L. Braver, Residential and Nonresidential Parents' Perspectives on Visitation Problems, 45 FAM. REL. 230 (1996); R.C. Bay & S.L. Braver, Perceived Control of the Divorce Settlement Process and Interparental Conflict, 39 FAM. REL. 382 (1990); S.L. Braver, M. Whitley & C. Ng, Who Divorced Whom: Methodological and Theoretical Issues, 20 J. DIVORCE& REMARRIAGE 1 (1993); V.L. Sheets & S.L. Braver, Gender Differences in Satisfaction with Divorce Decrees, 45 FAM. REL. 336 (1996); S.L. Braver et al., A Longitudinal Study of Noncustodial Parents: Parents Without Children, 7 J. FAM. PSYCH. 9 (1993).
56. See, e.g., Sanford L. Braver, P.J. Fitzpatrick & R.C. Bay, Noncustodial Parent's Report of Child Support Payments, 40 FAM. REL. 180 (1991); S.A. Wolchik, A.M. Fenaughty & S.L. Braver, Residential and Nonresidential Parents' Perspectives on Visitation Problems, 45 FAM. REL. 230 (1996); R.C. Bay & S.L. Braver, Perceived Control of the Divorce Settlement Process and Interparental Conflict, 39 FAM. REL. 382 (1990); S.L. Braver, M. Whitley & C. Ng, Who Divorced Whom: Methodological and Theoretical Issues, 20 J. DIVORCE& REMARRIAGE 1 (1993); V.L. Sheets & S.L. Braver, Gender Differences in Satisfaction with Divorce Decrees, 45 FAM. REL. 336 (1996); S.L. Braver et al., A Longitudinal Study of Noncustodial Parents: Parents Without Children, 7 J. FAM. PSYCH. 9 (1993).
57. SANFORD L BRAVER & DIANE O'CONNELL, DIVORCED DADS: SHATTERING THE MYTHS (1998). This article is a revised version of Chapter 4.
58. WEITZMAN, supra note 5, at 481-482.
59. H.W. Watts, Special Panel Suggests Changes in BLS Family Budget Program, MONTHLY LAB. REV. 1-10 (1980).
60. U.S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, CURRENT POPULATION REPORTS, SERIES P-60, No. 163 POVERTY IN THE UNITED STATES: 1987, (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1989).
61. From the Census Bureau's "web-page": http://wwwcensus.gov/ftp/pub/hhes/ poverty/thresld/thresh96.html.
62. F, where A is the number of adults in the family, and K is the number of children, and F, which represents the scale economy factor, set between .65 and .75. This would put the needs of the one person household at between 40% and 45% of the base family, and the one-parent, two children household at between 77% and 80% of the base family's needs.
63. Amounts for pre-separation were obtained within 12 weeks of filing for dissolution and for post were calculated one year after the first interview.
64. We have used the 1987 poverty levels for both pre- and post-divorce income, a choice which, while it might introduce slight inaccuracies for absolute levels of change in standards of living, will not affect cross-gender comparisons.
65. Thomas J Espenshade, The Economic Consequences of Divorce, 41 J. MARR. & FAM. 615 (1979).
66. Burkhauser and associates purport to take taxation into account, but their article provides almost no details. Inspection of their data, however, suggests that they did not appear to have compensated properly for taxes, for example, by taking state taxes and the child-care credit into their calculations. R. V. Burkhauser et al., Wife or Frau, Women Do Worse: A Comparison of Men and Women in the United States and Germany After Marital Dissolution, 28 DEMOGRAPHY 353 (1991).
67. Taking effect initially in 1998 and fully by 1999, Congress has authorized another very substantial new tax benefit, a $500 per child annual tax credit, available only to married parents or the divorced parent with custody.
68. Three other assumptions were made as well. (1) The state tax gives a deduction for federal income taxes actually paid in 1985. We assumed that the amount the couple paid was exactly the federal taxes we computed they owed. (2) We did not obtain separate incomes for each spouse pre-divorce, only their combined incomes. This prevented us from applying the cap that exists on FICA taxes, since the cap applies to each wage-earner separately. (3) Similarly, the 1985 federal tax code provides a deduction for a two-earner married couple. We could not apply the deduction, since we couldn't tell whether the couple had one or two wage earners.
69. We didn't deduct child care expenses in our presentation of the data in Chapter 4 of DIVORCED DADS, supra note 31. There were also other minor differences between the way the data were presented in that chapter's tables as compared to the present article.
70. These figures yield the finding that the two children require about 35% of the family's income, an estimate very similar to what the Family Economics Research Group at the U.S. Department of Agriculture finds. They also find that this percentage varies only negligibly with the household's income, supporting the use of an income-to-needs method across income levels. See L. J. Bassi & B.S. Barnow, Expenditures on Children and Child Support Guidelines, paper presented at Western Economic Association, 1991.
71. Braver et al, supra note 30.
72. S.L. Braver et al., Frequency of Visitation by Divorced Fathers: Differences in Reports by Mothers and Fathers, 61 AM. J. ORTHOPSYCH. 448 (1991); Braver, et al., supra note 30.
73. S.L. Braver et al., Frequency of Visitation by Divorced Fathers: Differences in Reports by Mothers and Fathers, 61 AM. J. ORTHOPSYCH. 448 (1991); Braver, et al., supra note 30.
74. See generally Ronald K. Henry, Child Support at a Crossroads: When the Real World Intrudes Upon Academics and Advocates, 33 FAM. L. Q. 000 (1999).
75. HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; R.R. PETERSON, WOMEN, WORK AND DIVORCE (1989); Day & Bahr, supra note 15.
76. HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; R.R. PETERSON, WOMEN, WORK AND DIVORCE (1989); Day & Bahr, supra note 15.
77. HORIZONTAL EQUITY, supra note 18; R.R. PETERSON, WOMEN, WORK AND DIVORCE (1989); Day & Bahr, supra note 15.