Structure, agency, and democratic theory

Polity

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 45-66

  Imbroscio, David L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033263835     PISSN: 00323497     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3235333     Document Type: Article

References (184)

1. Alexander E. Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Theory," International Organization 41 (1987): 335-70.
2. Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 338, 5n. See, for example, Jeffrey Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action and the Agent-Structure Problem," American Political Science Review 86 (1992): 647-57; Michael Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action in the Explanation of Social Change," Politics and Society 17 (1989): 115-62; William H. Sowell, Jr., "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation," American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992): 1-29; William G. Flanagan, "The Structural Roots of Action and the Question of Convergence," Research in Urban Sociology 3 (1993): 233-53.
3. Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 338, 5n. See, for example, Jeffrey Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action and the Agent-Structure Problem," American Political Science Review 86 (1992): 647-57; Michael Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action in the Explanation of Social Change," Politics and Society 17 (1989): 115-62; William H. Sowell, Jr., "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation," American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992): 1-29; William G. Flanagan, "The Structural Roots of Action and the Question of Convergence," Research in Urban Sociology 3 (1993): 233-53.
4. Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 338, 5n. See, for example, Jeffrey Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action and the Agent-Structure Problem," American Political Science Review 86 (1992): 647-57; Michael Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action in the Explanation of Social Change," Politics and Society 17 (1989): 115-62; William H. Sowell, Jr., "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation," American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992): 1-29; William G. Flanagan, "The Structural Roots of Action and the Question of Convergence," Research in Urban Sociology 3 (1993): 233-53.
5. Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 338, 5n. See, for example, Jeffrey Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action and the Agent-Structure Problem," American Political Science Review 86 (1992): 647-57; Michael Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action in the Explanation of Social Change," Politics and Society 17 (1989): 115-62; William H. Sowell, Jr., "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation," American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992): 1-29; William G. Flanagan, "The Structural Roots of Action and the Question of Convergence," Research in Urban Sociology 3 (1993): 233-53.
6. Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 338, 5n. See, for example, Jeffrey Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action and the Agent-Structure Problem," American Political Science Review 86 (1992): 647-57; Michael Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action in the Explanation of Social Change," Politics and Society 17 (1989): 115-62; William H. Sowell, Jr., "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation," American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992): 1-29; William G. Flanagan, "The Structural Roots of Action and the Question of Convergence," Research in Urban Sociology 3 (1993): 233-53.
7. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
8. Jeffrey Isaac, Power and Marxist Theory (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987).
9. P. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, and T. Skocpol, eds, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
10. Charles E. Lindblom, Politics and Markets (New York: Basic Books, 1977).
11. Paul Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1981).
12. John S. Dryzek, "The Good Society versus the State: Freedom and Necessity in Political Innovation," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 521.
13. A third position in this debate, rooted in methodological individualism, attributes all causality to the intentional actions of rational individuals - thereby denying any independent causal role to structures. See Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 339; Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action," 647. Because my concern is with the causal properties of structures as well as agents (individuals), this third position has less relevance for the analysis presented here.
14. A third position in this debate, rooted in methodological individualism, attributes all causality to the intentional actions of rational individuals - thereby denying any independent causal role to structures. See Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 339; Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action," 647. Because my concern is with the causal properties of structures as well as agents (individuals), this third position has less relevance for the analysis presented here.
15. Anthony Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 69.
16. Philip Abrams, Historical Sociology (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982), 192 (emphasis added). See also Roy Bhaskar, The Possibility of Naturalism (Atlantic Highland, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979).
17. Philip Abrams, Historical Sociology (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982), 192 (emphasis added). See also Roy Bhaskar, The Possibility of Naturalism (Atlantic Highland, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979).
18. As Robert Dahl has written, "the key characteristic of a democracy is the continuing responsiveness of the government to the preferences of its citizens." Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), 1 (emphasis added). In a recent and influential contribution to democratic theory, Putnam quotes Dahl on this point and also notes this position can be found prominently in the work of John Stuart Mill. See Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 63.
19. As Robert Dahl has written, "the key characteristic of a democracy is the continuing responsiveness of the government to the preferences of its citizens." Robert A. Dahl, Polyarchy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), 1 (emphasis added). In a recent and influential contribution to democratic theory, Putnam quotes Dahl on this point and also notes this position can be found prominently in the work of John Stuart Mill. See Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 63.
20. Adolph Reed, Jr, "The Black Urban Regime: Structural Origins and Constraints," in Power, Community, and the City, Comparative Urban and Community Research, Volume I, ed., Michael Peter Smith (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 138-89).
21. Their structural "prison" - to us Lindblom's poignant metaphor - is spacious and wellendowed, a "Club Fed" of sorts. See Charles E. Lindblom, "The Market as Prison," Journal of Politics 44 (1982): 324-36.
22. Sowell, "A Theory of Structure," 16.
23. Clarence N. Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946-1988 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989), 10. See also Abrams, Historical Sociology, especially ch. seven.
24. Clarence N. Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946-1988 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989), 10. See also Abrams, Historical Sociology, especially ch. seven.
25. As Sowell writes, "the same resourceful agency that sustains the reproduction of structures also makes possible their transformation." See Sowell, "A Theory of Structure," 27.
26. Note that, under other conditions, the dynamics of the prevailing structural forces may be wholly compatible with, and hence not inhibit, the realization of these preferences.
27. See Sowell, "A Theory of Structure."
28. See Sowell, "A Theory of Structure," 4.
29. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 138.
30. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 138; Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era," in The New African American Urban History, ed. K. W. Goings and R. A. Mohl (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications), 334-35. The thirteen cities were: Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Washington, New Orleans, Atlanta, Newark, Oakland, Birmingham, Richmond, Gary, Hartford, and Portsmouth, VA. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 174n.
31. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 138; Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era," in The New African American Urban History, ed. K. W. Goings and R. A. Mohl (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications), 334-35. The thirteen cities were: Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Washington, New Orleans, Atlanta, Newark, Oakland, Birmingham, Richmond, Gary, Hartford, and Portsmouth, VA. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 174n.
32. Rufus P. Browning, Dale R. Marshall, and David H. Tabb, eds., Racial Politics in American Cities (New York: Longman, 1997), 10; Dennis R. Judd and Todd Swanstrom, City Politics: Private Power and Public Policy (New York: Harper Collins, 1994), 382-83. cf. Louise Simmons, "Dilemmas of Progressives in Government," Economic Development Quarterly 10 (1996): 163.
33. Rufus P. Browning, Dale R. Marshall, and David H. Tabb, eds., Racial Politics in American Cities (New York: Longman, 1997), 10; Dennis R. Judd and Todd Swanstrom, City Politics: Private Power and Public Policy (New York: Harper Collins, 1994), 382-83. cf. Louise Simmons, "Dilemmas of Progressives in Government," Economic Development Quarterly 10 (1996): 163.
34. Rufus P. Browning, Dale R. Marshall, and David H. Tabb, eds., Racial Politics in American Cities (New York: Longman, 1997), 10; Dennis R. Judd and Todd Swanstrom, City Politics: Private Power and Public Policy (New York: Harper Collins, 1994), 382-83. cf. Louise Simmons, "Dilemmas of Progressives in Government," Economic Development Quarterly 10 (1996): 163.
35. This conception of the urban redistributive agenda draws on Clarence N. Stone, Marion Orr, and David Imbroscio, "The Reshaping of Urban Leadership in U.S. Cities: A Regime Analysis," in Urban Life in Transition, ed. Mark Gottdiener and Chris Pickvance (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1991), 232.
36. Albert K. Karnig and Susan Welch, Black Representation and Urban Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 111.
37. Karnig and Welch, Black Representation and Urban Policy, 111.
38. George E. Peterson, ed., Big-City Politics, Governance, and Fiscal Constraints (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press, 1994), 3.
39. See William E. Nelson, Jr., "Black Mayoral Leadership: A Twenty-Year Perspective," in Enduring Tensions in Urban Politics, ed. Dennis R. Judd and Paul Kantor (New York: Macmillan, 1992), 450-57.
40. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161. National-level public opinion data also support this conclusion. These data show that African-Americans as a whole favored redistributive policies much more strongly than whites. See Michael C. Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 184-86; Susan Welch and Lorn S. Foster, "The Impact of Economic Conditions on the Voting Behavior of Blacks," Western Political Quarterly 45 (1992), 225; Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, A Dream Deferred: Black Attitudes Toward Race and Inequality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). More affluent African-Americans tend to show less support for redistribution, but only to a small degree, and this segment of the African-American population tended to reside in suburbs, not central cities. See Dawson, "Behind the Mule," 192-93; William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 46-50.
41. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161. National-level public opinion data also support this conclusion. These data show that African-Americans as a whole favored redistributive policies much more strongly than whites. See Michael C. Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 184-86; Susan Welch and Lorn S. Foster, "The Impact of Economic Conditions on the Voting Behavior of Blacks," Western Political Quarterly 45 (1992), 225; Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, A Dream Deferred: Black Attitudes Toward Race and Inequality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). More affluent African-Americans tend to show less support for redistribution, but only to a small degree, and this segment of the African-American population tended to reside in suburbs, not central cities. See Dawson, "Behind the Mule," 192-93; William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 46-50.
42. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161. National-level public opinion data also support this conclusion. These data show that African-Americans as a whole favored redistributive policies much more strongly than whites. See Michael C. Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 184-86; Susan Welch and Lorn S. Foster, "The Impact of Economic Conditions on the Voting Behavior of Blacks," Western Political Quarterly 45 (1992), 225; Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, A Dream Deferred: Black Attitudes Toward Race and Inequality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). More affluent African-Americans tend to show less support for redistribution, but only to a small degree, and this segment of the African-American population tended to reside in suburbs, not central cities. See Dawson, "Behind the Mule," 192-93; William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 46-50.
43. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161. National-level public opinion data also support this conclusion. These data show that African-Americans as a whole favored redistributive policies much more strongly than whites. See Michael C. Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 184-86; Susan Welch and Lorn S. Foster, "The Impact of Economic Conditions on the Voting Behavior of Blacks," Western Political Quarterly 45 (1992), 225; Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, A Dream Deferred: Black Attitudes Toward Race and Inequality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). More affluent African-Americans tend to show less support for redistribution, but only to a small degree, and this segment of the African-American population tended to reside in suburbs, not central cities. See Dawson, "Behind the Mule," 192-93; William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 46-50.
44. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161. National-level public opinion data also support this conclusion. These data show that African-Americans as a whole favored redistributive policies much more strongly than whites. See Michael C. Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 184-86; Susan Welch and Lorn S. Foster, "The Impact of Economic Conditions on the Voting Behavior of Blacks," Western Political Quarterly 45 (1992), 225; Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, A Dream Deferred: Black Attitudes Toward Race and Inequality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). More affluent African-Americans tend to show less support for redistribution, but only to a small degree, and this segment of the African-American population tended to reside in suburbs, not central cities. See Dawson, "Behind the Mule," 192-93; William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 46-50.
45. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161. National-level public opinion data also support this conclusion. These data show that African-Americans as a whole favored redistributive policies much more strongly than whites. See Michael C. Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 184-86; Susan Welch and Lorn S. Foster, "The Impact of Economic Conditions on the Voting Behavior of Blacks," Western Political Quarterly 45 (1992), 225; Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, A Dream Deferred: Black Attitudes Toward Race and Inequality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). More affluent African-Americans tend to show less support for redistribution, but only to a small degree, and this segment of the African-American population tended to reside in suburbs, not central cities. See Dawson, "Behind the Mule," 192-93; William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 46-50.
46. Martin Shefter, Political Crisis/Fiscal Crisis (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Paul Kantor, The Dependent City Revisited (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995).
47. Martin Shefter, Political Crisis/Fiscal Crisis (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Paul Kantor, The Dependent City Revisited (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995).
48. Bryan Jones and Lynn Bachelor, The Sustaining Hand (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986).
49. Paul Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1981), 29.
50. Kantor, The Dependent City Revisited. This dynamic was at work not only regarding investment capital, but higher-income (mobile) city residents as well. See Peterson, City Limits, 32-38.
51. Kantor, The Dependent City Revisited. This dynamic was at work not only regarding investment capital, but higher-income (mobile) city residents as well. See Peterson, City Limits, 32-38.
52. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 148-54; see also Robert Mier, Joan Fitzgerald, and Lewis Randolph, "African-American Elected Officials and the Future of Progressive Political Movements," in Community Economic Development, ed. David Fasenfest (London: The Macmillan Press LTD, 1993), 92. see also G. Peterson, Big-City Politics, 4-5; Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335; Susan S. Fainstein and Norman I. Fainstein, "The Racial Dimension in Urban Political Economy," Urban Affairs Quarterly 25 (1989): 187-99.
53. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 148-54; see also Robert Mier, Joan Fitzgerald, and Lewis Randolph, "African-American Elected Officials and the Future of Progressive Political Movements," in Community Economic Development, ed. David Fasenfest (London: The Macmillan Press LTD, 1993), 92. see also G. Peterson, Big-City Politics, 4-5; Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335; Susan S. Fainstein and Norman I. Fainstein, "The Racial Dimension in Urban Political Economy," Urban Affairs Quarterly 25 (1989): 187-99.
54. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 148-54; see also Robert Mier, Joan Fitzgerald, and Lewis Randolph, "African-American Elected Officials and the Future of Progressive Political Movements," in Community Economic Development, ed. David Fasenfest (London: The Macmillan Press LTD, 1993), 92. see also G. Peterson, Big-City Politics, 4-5; Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335; Susan S. Fainstein and Norman I. Fainstein, "The Racial Dimension in Urban Political Economy," Urban Affairs Quarterly 25 (1989): 187-99.
55. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 148-54; see also Robert Mier, Joan Fitzgerald, and Lewis Randolph, "African-American Elected Officials and the Future of Progressive Political Movements," in Community Economic Development, ed. David Fasenfest (London: The Macmillan Press LTD, 1993), 92. see also G. Peterson, Big-City Politics, 4-5; Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335; Susan S. Fainstein and Norman I. Fainstein, "The Racial Dimension in Urban Political Economy," Urban Affairs Quarterly 25 (1989): 187-99.
56. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 148-54; see also Robert Mier, Joan Fitzgerald, and Lewis Randolph, "African-American Elected Officials and the Future of Progressive Political Movements," in Community Economic Development, ed. David Fasenfest (London: The Macmillan Press LTD, 1993), 92. see also G. Peterson, Big-City Politics, 4-5; Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335; Susan S. Fainstein and Norman I. Fainstein, "The Racial Dimension in Urban Political Economy," Urban Affairs Quarterly 25 (1989): 187-99.
57. Mier, Fitzgerald, and Randolph, "African American Elected Officials," 94; Christopher B. Mobley, "The Dawning of the Second Wave: African-American Mayors and Fiscal Federalism, 1978-1984," paper presented at the American Political Science Association annual meeting, New York, New York: September 1-4, 1994, 7-8.
58. Mier, Fitzgerald, and Randolph, "African American Elected Officials," 94; Christopher B. Mobley, "The Dawning of the Second Wave: African-American Mayors and Fiscal Federalism, 1978-1984," paper presented at the American Political Science Association annual meeting, New York, New York: September 1-4, 1994, 7-8.
59. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335.
60. Mier, Fitzgerald, and Randolph, "African American Elected Officials," 92; see also Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335-37; Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 382-83.
61. Mier, Fitzgerald, and Randolph, "African American Elected Officials," 92; see also Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335-37; Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 382-83.
62. Mier, Fitzgerald, and Randolph, "African American Elected Officials," 92; see also Kusmer, "African Americans in the City," 335-37; Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 382-83.
63. See, most notably, Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership"
64. and Reed, "The Black Urban Regime."
65. Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership," 453.
66. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 168.
67. Reed notes that this zeal was exhibited most strongly by Mayors Coleman Young (Detroit) and Andrew Young (Atlanta). Other mayors singled out for special mention include: Barry (Washington, DC); Gibson and James (Newark); Wilson (Oakland); Morial and Barthelemy (New Orleans); Goode (Philadelphia); Arrington (Birmingham). See Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 159-60.
68. Stephen L. Elkin, City and Regime in the American Republic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 96.
69. Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership," 456. Numerous other scholars also have been sharply critical of Black Urban Regimes for habitually embracing the corporate-center urban economic development agenda. See, for example, Stone, Regime Politics; Richard Child Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City," in Restructuring the City, Susan Fainstein et al. (New York: Longman, 1983), 80-125; Elkin, City and Regime; Marc V. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities: Toward Democratic and Strategic Planning in State and Local Government," in The State and Democracy, Marc Levine et al. (New York: Routledge, 1988), 111-46.
70. Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership," 456. Numerous other scholars also have been sharply critical of Black Urban Regimes for habitually embracing the corporate-center urban economic development agenda. See, for example, Stone, Regime Politics; Richard Child Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City," in Restructuring the City, Susan Fainstein et al. (New York: Longman, 1983), 80-125; Elkin, City and Regime; Marc V. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities: Toward Democratic and Strategic Planning in State and Local Government," in The State and Democracy, Marc Levine et al. (New York: Routledge, 1988), 111-46.
71. Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership," 456. Numerous other scholars also have been sharply critical of Black Urban Regimes for habitually embracing the corporate-center urban economic development agenda. See, for example, Stone, Regime Politics; Richard Child Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City," in Restructuring the City, Susan Fainstein et al. (New York: Longman, 1983), 80-125; Elkin, City and Regime; Marc V. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities: Toward Democratic and Strategic Planning in State and Local Government," in The State and Democracy, Marc Levine et al. (New York: Routledge, 1988), 111-46.
72. Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership," 456. Numerous other scholars also have been sharply critical of Black Urban Regimes for habitually embracing the corporate-center urban economic development agenda. See, for example, Stone, Regime Politics; Richard Child Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City," in Restructuring the City, Susan Fainstein et al. (New York: Longman, 1983), 80-125; Elkin, City and Regime; Marc V. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities: Toward Democratic and Strategic Planning in State and Local Government," in The State and Democracy, Marc Levine et al. (New York: Routledge, 1988), 111-46.
73. Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership," 456. Numerous other scholars also have been sharply critical of Black Urban Regimes for habitually embracing the corporate-center urban economic development agenda. See, for example, Stone, Regime Politics; Richard Child Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City," in Restructuring the City, Susan Fainstein et al. (New York: Longman, 1983), 80-125; Elkin, City and Regime; Marc V. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities: Toward Democratic and Strategic Planning in State and Local Government," in The State and Democracy, Marc Levine et al. (New York: Routledge, 1988), 111-46.
74. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 168 (emphasis added).
75. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 168.
76. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 165; Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership."
77. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 165; Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership."
78. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 158.
79. Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership," 453.
80. See, for example. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime; " Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership;" Stone, Regime Politics; Elkin, City and Regime; Fainstein et al., Restructuring the City.
81. See, for example. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime; " Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership;" Stone, Regime Politics; Elkin, City and Regime; Fainstein et al., Restructuring the City.
82. See, for example. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime; " Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership;" Stone, Regime Politics; Elkin, City and Regime; Fainstein et al., Restructuring the City.
83. See, for example. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime; " Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership;" Stone, Regime Politics; Elkin, City and Regime; Fainstein et al., Restructuring the City.
84. See, for example. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime; " Nelson, "Black Mayoral Leadership;" Stone, Regime Politics; Elkin, City and Regime; Fainstein et al., Restructuring the City.
85. Cf. Kenneth K. Wong, "Economic Constraint and Political Choice in Urban Policymaking," American Journal of Political Science 32 (1988): 1-18. Wong similarly shows how the workings of local politics can either "reinforce" or "contradict" the effects of economic structural constraints on urban policymaking. Also see Roberto Mangabeira Unger, False Necessity: AntiNecessitarian Social Theory in the Service of Radical Democracy, Part I of Politics, a Work in Constructive Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), esp. 277-82.
86. Cf. Kenneth K. Wong, "Economic Constraint and Political Choice in Urban Policymaking," American Journal of Political Science 32 (1988): 1-18. Wong similarly shows how the workings of local politics can either "reinforce" or "contradict" the effects of economic structural constraints on urban policymaking. Also see Roberto Mangabeira Unger, False Necessity: AntiNecessitarian Social Theory in the Service of Radical Democracy, Part I of Politics, a Work in Constructive Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), esp. 277-82.
87. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities," 119; see also Elkin, City and Regime, 96-97; Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City," 102-06.
88. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities," 119; see also Elkin, City and Regime, 96-97; Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City," 102-06.
89. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities," 119; see also Elkin, City and Regime, 96-97; Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City," 102-06.
90. See Sam Bass Wanrer, The Private City (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968).
91. Timothy Barnekov and Daniel Rich, "Privatism and the Limits of Local Economic Development Policy," Urban Affairs Quarterly 25 (1989): 213; cf. Carla Jean Robinson, "Municipal Approaches to Economic Development: Growth and Distribution Policy," Journal of the American Planning Association 55 (1989): 285; Helga Leitner and Mark Garner, "The Limits of Local Initiatives: A Reassessment of Urban Entrepreneurialism for Urban Development," Urban Geography 14 (1993): 59-60.
92. Timothy Barnekov and Daniel Rich, "Privatism and the Limits of Local Economic Development Policy," Urban Affairs Quarterly 25 (1989): 213; cf. Carla Jean Robinson, "Municipal Approaches to Economic Development: Growth and Distribution Policy," Journal of the American Planning Association 55 (1989): 285; Helga Leitner and Mark Garner, "The Limits of Local Initiatives: A Reassessment of Urban Entrepreneurialism for Urban Development," Urban Geography 14 (1993): 59-60.
93. Timothy Barnekov and Daniel Rich, "Privatism and the Limits of Local Economic Development Policy," Urban Affairs Quarterly 25 (1989): 213; cf. Carla Jean Robinson, "Municipal Approaches to Economic Development: Growth and Distribution Policy," Journal of the American Planning Association 55 (1989): 285; Helga Leitner and Mark Garner, "The Limits of Local Initiatives: A Reassessment of Urban Entrepreneurialism for Urban Development," Urban Geography 14 (1993): 59-60.
94. See Peterson, City Limits.
95. Judith A. Garber, "Law and the Possibilities for a Just Political Economy," Journal of Urban Affairs 12 (1990): 1-15.
96. Kantor, The Dependent City Revisited.
97. Christopher Gunn and Hazel Dayton Gunn, Reclaiming Capital: Democratic Initiatives and Community Development (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991).
98. Susan S. Fainstein and Norman I. Fainstein, "Regime Strategies, Communal Resistance, and Economic Forces," in Restructuring the City, 245-82.
99. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged.
100. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 153; Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land (New York: Vintage Books, 1991).
101. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 153; Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land (New York: Vintage Books, 1991).
102. See John R. Logan and Todd Swanstrom, "Urban Restructuring: A Critical View," in Beyond the City Limits, ed. John R. Logan and Todd Swanstrom (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 20-21; Deborah Groban Olson, "Employee Ownership: An Economic Development Tool for Anchoring Capital in Local Communities," Review of Law and Social Change 15 (1987): 239-241; Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State.
103. See John R. Logan and Todd Swanstrom, "Urban Restructuring: A Critical View," in Beyond the City Limits, ed. John R. Logan and Todd Swanstrom (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 20-21; Deborah Groban Olson, "Employee Ownership: An Economic Development Tool for Anchoring Capital in Local Communities," Review of Law and Social Change 15 (1987): 239-241; Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State.
104. See John R. Logan and Todd Swanstrom, "Urban Restructuring: A Critical View," in Beyond the City Limits, ed. John R. Logan and Todd Swanstrom (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 20-21; Deborah Groban Olson, "Employee Ownership: An Economic Development Tool for Anchoring Capital in Local Communities," Review of Law and Social Change 15 (1987): 239-241; Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State.
105. Barnekov and Rich, "Privatism and the Limits of Local Economic Development Policy."
106. Gregory D. Squires, ed., Unequal Partnerships: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment in Postwar America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989).
107. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities"; Gerry Riposa and Greg Andranovich, "Economic Development Policy: Whose Interests are Being Served?" Urban Resources 5 (1988): 25-34, 42; Roger Friedland, Power and Crisis in the City (New York: Macmillan, 1983).
108. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities"; Gerry Riposa and Greg Andranovich, "Economic Development Policy: Whose Interests are Being Served?" Urban Resources 5 (1988): 25-34, 42; Roger Friedland, Power and Crisis in the City (New York: Macmillan, 1983).
109. Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities"; Gerry Riposa and Greg Andranovich, "Economic Development Policy: Whose Interests are Being Served?" Urban Resources 5 (1988): 25-34, 42; Roger Friedland, Power and Crisis in the City (New York: Macmillan, 1983).
110. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161; Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities," 125.
111. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161; Levine, "Economic Development in States and Cities," 125.
112. Thomas Stanback and Thierry Noyelle, Cities in Transition (Totowa, NJ: Allanheld-Osmun, 1982), 140-42.
113. Brain Berry, "Islands of Renewal in Seas of Decay," in The New Urban Reality, ed. Paul Peterson (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1985), 69-98.
114. Fainstein and Fainstein, "Regime Strategies."
115. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 160-61; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel, "Introduction," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods: Progressive City Government in Chicago, 1983-1987, ed. Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 5-6; Norman Krumholz, "Equity and Local Economic Development," Economic Development Quarterly 5 (1991): 291-300; Leitner and Gamer, "The Limits of Local Initiatives," 64-65; Gregory R. Weiher, "Rumors of the Demise of the Urban Crisis are Greatly Exaggerated," Journal of Urban Affairs 11 (1989): 233; Alexander Ganz, "Where has the Urban Crisis Gone?" in Cities in Stress, ed. M. Gottdiener (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986), 53.
116. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 160-61; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel, "Introduction," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods: Progressive City Government in Chicago, 1983-1987, ed. Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 5-6; Norman Krumholz, "Equity and Local Economic Development," Economic Development Quarterly 5 (1991): 291-300; Leitner and Gamer, "The Limits of Local Initiatives," 64-65; Gregory R. Weiher, "Rumors of the Demise of the Urban Crisis are Greatly Exaggerated," Journal of Urban Affairs 11 (1989): 233; Alexander Ganz, "Where has the Urban Crisis Gone?" in Cities in Stress, ed. M. Gottdiener (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986), 53.
117. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 160-61; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel, "Introduction," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods: Progressive City Government in Chicago, 1983-1987, ed. Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 5-6; Norman Krumholz, "Equity and Local Economic Development," Economic Development Quarterly 5 (1991): 291-300; Leitner and Gamer, "The Limits of Local Initiatives," 64-65; Gregory R. Weiher, "Rumors of the Demise of the Urban Crisis are Greatly Exaggerated," Journal of Urban Affairs 11 (1989): 233; Alexander Ganz, "Where has the Urban Crisis Gone?" in Cities in Stress, ed. M. Gottdiener (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986), 53.
118. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 160-61; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel, "Introduction," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods: Progressive City Government in Chicago, 1983-1987, ed. Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 5-6; Norman Krumholz, "Equity and Local Economic Development," Economic Development Quarterly 5 (1991): 291-300; Leitner and Gamer, "The Limits of Local Initiatives," 64-65; Gregory R. Weiher, "Rumors of the Demise of the Urban Crisis are Greatly Exaggerated," Journal of Urban Affairs 11 (1989): 233; Alexander Ganz, "Where has the Urban Crisis Gone?" in Cities in Stress, ed. M. Gottdiener (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986), 53.
119. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 160-61; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel, "Introduction," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods: Progressive City Government in Chicago, 1983-1987, ed. Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 5-6; Norman Krumholz, "Equity and Local Economic Development," Economic Development Quarterly 5 (1991): 291-300; Leitner and Gamer, "The Limits of Local Initiatives," 64-65; Gregory R. Weiher, "Rumors of the Demise of the Urban Crisis are Greatly Exaggerated," Journal of Urban Affairs 11 (1989): 233; Alexander Ganz, "Where has the Urban Crisis Gone?" in Cities in Stress, ed. M. Gottdiener (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986), 53.
120. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 160-61; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel, "Introduction," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods: Progressive City Government in Chicago, 1983-1987, ed. Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 5-6; Norman Krumholz, "Equity and Local Economic Development," Economic Development Quarterly 5 (1991): 291-300; Leitner and Gamer, "The Limits of Local Initiatives," 64-65; Gregory R. Weiher, "Rumors of the Demise of the Urban Crisis are Greatly Exaggerated," Journal of Urban Affairs 11 (1989): 233; Alexander Ganz, "Where has the Urban Crisis Gone?" in Cities in Stress, ed. M. Gottdiener (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986), 53.
121. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 160-61; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel, "Introduction," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods: Progressive City Government in Chicago, 1983-1987, ed. Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 5-6; Norman Krumholz, "Equity and Local Economic Development," Economic Development Quarterly 5 (1991): 291-300; Leitner and Gamer, "The Limits of Local Initiatives," 64-65; Gregory R. Weiher, "Rumors of the Demise of the Urban Crisis are Greatly Exaggerated," Journal of Urban Affairs 11 (1989): 233; Alexander Ganz, "Where has the Urban Crisis Gone?" in Cities in Stress, ed. M. Gottdiener (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986), 53.
122. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Logan and Molotch, Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 112-16.
123. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Logan and Molotch, Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 112-16.
124. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161; Elkin, City and Regime, 100; Logan and Molotch, Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 112-16.
125. Cf. Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State.
126. William Schweke, "Why Local Governments Need an Entrepreneurial Policy," Public Management 67 (1985): 3-5.
127. Jane Jacobs, The Economy of Cities (New York: Random House, 1969); Albert Shapero, "Entrepreneurship: Key to Self-Renewing Economies," reprinted in E.E. Malizia, Local Economic Development: A Guide to Practice (New York: Praeger, 1985), 210-11. To aid small businesses, numerous cities have created seed capital pools, opened incubators, or offered marketing assistance. Cities engaging in at least some of these activities include New York, Chicago, and St. Paul. See David Imbroscio, Reconstructing City Politics (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1997), 89.
128. Jane Jacobs, The Economy of Cities (New York: Random House, 1969); Albert Shapero, "Entrepreneurship: Key to Self-Renewing Economies," reprinted in E.E. Malizia, Local Economic Development: A Guide to Practice (New York: Praeger, 1985), 210-11. To aid small businesses, numerous cities have created seed capital pools, opened incubators, or offered marketing assistance. Cities engaging in at least some of these activities include New York, Chicago, and St. Paul. See David Imbroscio, Reconstructing City Politics (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1997), 89.
129. Jane Jacobs, The Economy of Cities (New York: Random House, 1969); Albert Shapero, "Entrepreneurship: Key to Self-Renewing Economies," reprinted in E.E. Malizia, Local Economic Development: A Guide to Practice (New York: Praeger, 1985), 210-11. To aid small businesses, numerous cities have created seed capital pools, opened incubators, or offered marketing assistance. Cities engaging in at least some of these activities include New York, Chicago, and St. Paul. See David Imbroscio, Reconstructing City Politics (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1997), 89.
130. See Corey Rosen and James Wilson, "Employee Ownership: A New Strategy for Economic Development," Review of Law and Social Change 15 (1987): 211-25.
131. Olson, "Employee Ownership"; see also Robert Dahl, A Preface to Economic Democracy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 120-22.
132. Olson, "Employee Ownership"; see also Robert Dahl, A Preface to Economic Democracy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 120-22.
133. Olson, "Employee Ownership," 244-47. Several cities have made efforts to assist the creation of worker-owned firms, including Burlington, Vermont, Pittsburgh, St. Paul, Chicago, New York, San Antonio, and Milwaukee. See Richard Schramm, "Local, Regional, and National Strategies," in Beyond the Market and the State: New Directions in Community Economic Development, ed. Severyn T. Bruyn and James Meehan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 162; Robert A. Beauregard, Paul Lawless, and Sabina Deitrick, "Collaborative Strategies for Reindustrialization: Sheffield and Pittsburgh," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 425; Dennis R. Judd and Randy L. Ready, "Entrepreneurial Cities and the New Policies of Economic Development," in Reagan and the Cities, ed. George Peterson and Carol W. Lewis (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1986), 240; Robert P. Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities: Research and Development in the Department of Economic Development," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods, 109; Rosen and Wilson, "Employee Ownership," 223-24.
134. Olson, "Employee Ownership," 244-47. Several cities have made efforts to assist the creation of worker-owned firms, including Burlington, Vermont, Pittsburgh, St. Paul, Chicago, New York, San Antonio, and Milwaukee. See Richard Schramm, "Local, Regional, and National Strategies," in Beyond the Market and the State: New Directions in Community Economic Development, ed. Severyn T. Bruyn and James Meehan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 162; Robert A. Beauregard, Paul Lawless, and Sabina Deitrick, "Collaborative Strategies for Reindustrialization: Sheffield and Pittsburgh," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 425; Dennis R. Judd and Randy L. Ready, "Entrepreneurial Cities and the New Policies of Economic Development," in Reagan and the Cities, ed. George Peterson and Carol W. Lewis (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1986), 240; Robert P. Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities: Research and Development in the Department of Economic Development," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods, 109; Rosen and Wilson, "Employee Ownership," 223-24.
135. Olson, "Employee Ownership," 244-47. Several cities have made efforts to assist the creation of worker-owned firms, including Burlington, Vermont, Pittsburgh, St. Paul, Chicago, New York, San Antonio, and Milwaukee. See Richard Schramm, "Local, Regional, and National Strategies," in Beyond the Market and the State: New Directions in Community Economic Development, ed. Severyn T. Bruyn and James Meehan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 162; Robert A. Beauregard, Paul Lawless, and Sabina Deitrick, "Collaborative Strategies for Reindustrialization: Sheffield and Pittsburgh," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 425; Dennis R. Judd and Randy L. Ready, "Entrepreneurial Cities and the New Policies of Economic Development," in Reagan and the Cities, ed. George Peterson and Carol W. Lewis (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1986), 240; Robert P. Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities: Research and Development in the Department of Economic Development," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods, 109; Rosen and Wilson, "Employee Ownership," 223-24.
136. Olson, "Employee Ownership," 244-47. Several cities have made efforts to assist the creation of worker-owned firms, including Burlington, Vermont, Pittsburgh, St. Paul, Chicago, New York, San Antonio, and Milwaukee. See Richard Schramm, "Local, Regional, and National Strategies," in Beyond the Market and the State: New Directions in Community Economic Development, ed. Severyn T. Bruyn and James Meehan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 162; Robert A. Beauregard, Paul Lawless, and Sabina Deitrick, "Collaborative Strategies for Reindustrialization: Sheffield and Pittsburgh," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 425; Dennis R. Judd and Randy L. Ready, "Entrepreneurial Cities and the New Policies of Economic Development," in Reagan and the Cities, ed. George Peterson and Carol W. Lewis (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1986), 240; Robert P. Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities: Research and Development in the Department of Economic Development," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods, 109; Rosen and Wilson, "Employee Ownership," 223-24.
137. Olson, "Employee Ownership," 244-47. Several cities have made efforts to assist the creation of worker-owned firms, including Burlington, Vermont, Pittsburgh, St. Paul, Chicago, New York, San Antonio, and Milwaukee. See Richard Schramm, "Local, Regional, and National Strategies," in Beyond the Market and the State: New Directions in Community Economic Development, ed. Severyn T. Bruyn and James Meehan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 162; Robert A. Beauregard, Paul Lawless, and Sabina Deitrick, "Collaborative Strategies for Reindustrialization: Sheffield and Pittsburgh," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 425; Dennis R. Judd and Randy L. Ready, "Entrepreneurial Cities and the New Policies of Economic Development," in Reagan and the Cities, ed. George Peterson and Carol W. Lewis (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1986), 240; Robert P. Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities: Research and Development in the Department of Economic Development," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods, 109; Rosen and Wilson, "Employee Ownership," 223-24.
138. Olson, "Employee Ownership," 244-47. Several cities have made efforts to assist the creation of worker-owned firms, including Burlington, Vermont, Pittsburgh, St. Paul, Chicago, New York, San Antonio, and Milwaukee. See Richard Schramm, "Local, Regional, and National Strategies," in Beyond the Market and the State: New Directions in Community Economic Development, ed. Severyn T. Bruyn and James Meehan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 162; Robert A. Beauregard, Paul Lawless, and Sabina Deitrick, "Collaborative Strategies for Reindustrialization: Sheffield and Pittsburgh," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 425; Dennis R. Judd and Randy L. Ready, "Entrepreneurial Cities and the New Policies of Economic Development," in Reagan and the Cities, ed. George Peterson and Carol W. Lewis (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1986), 240; Robert P. Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities: Research and Development in the Department of Economic Development," in Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods, 109; Rosen and Wilson, "Employee Ownership," 223-24.
139. Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State, 321-28; John Portz, The Politics of Plant Closings (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), chapter five; Robert Weinberg, "The Use of Eminent Domain to Prevent an Industrial Plant Shutdown: The Next Step in an Expanding Power," Albany Law Review 49 (1984): 95-130; Joseph Hornack and Staughton Lynd, "The Steel Valley Authority," Review of Law and Social Change 15 (1987): 113-25. Numerous cities have attempted or considered using their eminent domain powers in this manner, including Oakland, CA, New Bedford, MA, and Pittsburgh, PA.
140. Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State, 321-28; John Portz, The Politics of Plant Closings (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), chapter five; Robert Weinberg, "The Use of Eminent Domain to Prevent an Industrial Plant Shutdown: The Next Step in an Expanding Power," Albany Law Review 49 (1984): 95-130; Joseph Hornack and Staughton Lynd, "The Steel Valley Authority," Review of Law and Social Change 15 (1987): 113-25. Numerous cities have attempted or considered using their eminent domain powers in this manner, including Oakland, CA, New Bedford, MA, and Pittsburgh, PA.
141. Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State, 321-28; John Portz, The Politics of Plant Closings (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), chapter five; Robert Weinberg, "The Use of Eminent Domain to Prevent an Industrial Plant Shutdown: The Next Step in an Expanding Power," Albany Law Review 49 (1984): 95-130; Joseph Hornack and Staughton Lynd, "The Steel Valley Authority," Review of Law and Social Change 15 (1987): 113-25. Numerous cities have attempted or considered using their eminent domain powers in this manner, including Oakland, CA, New Bedford, MA, and Pittsburgh, PA.
142. Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State, 321-28; John Portz, The Politics of Plant Closings (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), chapter five; Robert Weinberg, "The Use of Eminent Domain to Prevent an Industrial Plant Shutdown: The Next Step in an Expanding Power," Albany Law Review 49 (1984): 95-130; Joseph Hornack and Staughton Lynd, "The Steel Valley Authority," Review of Law and Social Change 15 (1987): 113-25. Numerous cities have attempted or considered using their eminent domain powers in this manner, including Oakland, CA, New Bedford, MA, and Pittsburgh, PA.
143. See Scott Cummings et al., "Public-Private Partnerships and Public Enterprise," Urban Resources 5 (1988): 35-36; 47-48. Many cities have gained these public equity holdings, including Cincinnati, San Antonio, and
144. See Scott Cummings et al., "Public-Private Partnerships and Public Enterprise," Urban Resources 5 (1988): 35-36; 47-48. Many cities have gained these public equity holdings, including Cincinnati, San Antonio, and Louisville. See David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992); Scott Cummings et al., "Redevelopment in Downtown Louisville: Public Investments, Private Profits, and Shared Risks," in Unequal Partnerships, 202-21; Richard F. Babcock, "The City as Entrepreneur Fiscal Wisdom or Regulatory Folly," in City Deal Making, ed. Terry Lassar (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1990), 11-43.
145. See Scott Cummings et al., "Public-Private Partnerships and Public Enterprise," Urban Resources 5 (1988): 35-36; 47-48. Many cities have gained these public equity holdings, including Cincinnati, San Antonio, and Louisville. See David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992); Scott Cummings et al., "Redevelopment in Downtown Louisville: Public Investments, Private Profits, and Shared Risks," in Unequal Partnerships, 202-21; Richard F. Babcock, "The City as Entrepreneur Fiscal Wisdom or Regulatory Folly," in City Deal Making, ed. Terry Lassar (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1990), 11-43.
146. See Scott Cummings et al., "Public-Private Partnerships and Public Enterprise," Urban Resources 5 (1988): 35-36; 47-48. Many cities have gained these public equity holdings, including Cincinnati, San Antonio, and Louisville. See David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992); Scott Cummings et al., "Redevelopment in Downtown Louisville: Public Investments, Private Profits, and Shared Risks," in Unequal Partnerships, 202-21; Richard F. Babcock, "The City as Entrepreneur Fiscal Wisdom or Regulatory Folly," in City Deal Making, ed. Terry Lassar (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1990), 11-43.
147. Frug, "The City as a Legal Concept," 1150; Osborne and Gaebler, Reinventing Government, 216.
148. Frug, "The City as a Legal Concept," 1150; Osborne and Gaebler, Reinventing Government, 216.
149. Lynne B. Sagalyn, "Public Profit Sharing: Symbol or Substance," in City Deal Making, ed. Terry Lassar (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1990), 143; Pierre Clavel, The Progressive City: Planning and Participation, 1969-1984 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986), 32; Barry J. Cullingworth, Urban and Regional Planning in Canada (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1987), 171.
150. Lynne B. Sagalyn, "Public Profit Sharing: Symbol or Substance," in City Deal Making, ed. Terry Lassar (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1990), 143; Pierre Clavel, The Progressive City: Planning and Participation, 1969-1984 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986), 32; Barry J. Cullingworth, Urban and Regional Planning in Canada (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1987), 171.
151. Lynne B. Sagalyn, "Public Profit Sharing: Symbol or Substance," in City Deal Making, ed. Terry Lassar (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1990), 143; Pierre Clavel, The Progressive City: Planning and Participation, 1969-1984 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986), 32; Barry J. Cullingworth, Urban and Regional Planning in Canada (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1987), 171.
152. Clarence N. Stone, "Summing Up: Urban Regimes, Development Policy, and Political Arrangements," in The Politics of Urban Development, eds. Clarence N. Stone and Heywood T. Sanders (Lawrence. University Press of Kansas, 1987), 279-280.
153. Marc V. Levine, "The Politics of Partnership: Urban Redevelopment Since 1945," in Unequal Partnerships, 30. Boston, San Francisco, Santa Monica, and Palo Alto all have adopted mandatory "linkage" policies. See Teresa Herrero, "Housing Linkage: Will it Play a Role in the 1990s?" Journal of Urban Affairs 13 (1991): 1-19; Michael Peter Smith, "The Uses of Linked-Development Policies in U.S. Cities," in Regenerating the Cities: The UK Crisis and the US Experience, ed. Michael Parkinson et al. (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1989), 85-99.
154. Marc V. Levine, "The Politics of Partnership: Urban Redevelopment Since 1945," in Unequal Partnerships, 30. Boston, San Francisco, Santa Monica, and Palo Alto all have adopted mandatory "linkage" policies. See Teresa Herrero, "Housing Linkage: Will it Play a Role in the 1990s?" Journal of Urban Affairs 13 (1991): 1-19; Michael Peter Smith, "The Uses of Linked-Development Policies in U.S. Cities," in Regenerating the Cities: The UK Crisis and the US Experience, ed. Michael Parkinson et al. (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1989), 85-99.
155. Marc V. Levine, "The Politics of Partnership: Urban Redevelopment Since 1945," in Unequal Partnerships, 30. Boston, San Francisco, Santa Monica, and Palo Alto all have adopted mandatory "linkage" policies. See Teresa Herrero, "Housing Linkage: Will it Play a Role in the 1990s?" Journal of Urban Affairs 13 (1991): 1-19; Michael Peter Smith, "The Uses of Linked-Development Policies in U.S. Cities," in Regenerating the Cities: The UK Crisis and the US Experience, ed. Michael Parkinson et al. (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1989), 85-99.
156. Peter S. Fisher, "State Venture Capital Funds as an Economic Development Strategy," Journal of the American Planning Association 54 (1988): 175.
157. Garber, "Law and the Possibilities."
158. Levine, "The Politics of Partnership," 30; Avis C. Vidal, Rebuilding Communities: A National Study of Urban Community Development Corporations (New York: Community Development Research Center, Graduate School of Management and Urban Policy, New School for Social Research, 1992), 80; Neal R. Peirce and Carol Steinbach, Corrective Capitalism: The Rise of America's Community Development Corporations (New York: Ford Foundation, 1987), 13.
159. Levine, "The Politics of Partnership," 30; Avis C. Vidal, Rebuilding Communities: A National Study of Urban Community Development Corporations (New York: Community Development Research Center, Graduate School of Management and Urban Policy, New School for Social Research, 1992), 80; Neal R. Peirce and Carol Steinbach, Corrective Capitalism: The Rise of America's Community Development Corporations (New York: Ford Foundation, 1987), 13.
160. Levine, "The Politics of Partnership," 30; Avis C. Vidal, Rebuilding Communities: A National Study of Urban Community Development Corporations (New York: Community Development Research Center, Graduate School of Management and Urban Policy, New School for Social Research, 1992), 80; Neal R. Peirce and Carol Steinbach, Corrective Capitalism: The Rise of America's Community Development Corporations (New York: Ford Foundation, 1987), 13.
161. See Bruyn and Meehan, eds., Beyond the Market and the State; Gunn and Gunn, Reclaiming Capital Development.
162. See Bruyn and Meehan, eds., Beyond the Market and the State; Gunn and Gunn, Reclaiming Capital Development.
163. Vidal, Rebuilding Communities.
164. See Kirby White and Charles Matthei, "Community Land Trusts," in Beyond the Market and the State, 41-64.
165. See Julia Parzen and Michael Hall Kieschnick, Credit Where it's Due: Development Banking for Communities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); Michael Swack, "Community Finance Institutions," in Beyond the Market and the State, 79-97.
166. See Julia Parzen and Michael Hall Kieschnick, Credit Where it's Due: Development Banking for Communities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); Michael Swack, "Community Finance Institutions," in Beyond the Market and the State, 79-97.
167. See Jean Hammond, "Consumer Cooperatives," in Beyond the Market and the State, 97-112.
168. Numerous cities have supported these organizations in modest ways. See Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities"; and "Community Economic Development: Strategies and Practices of the 1980s," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 343-50. Vidal, Rebuilding Communities; Steven D. Soifer, "The Burlington Community Land Trust," Journal of Urban Affairs 12 (1990): 237-52.
169. Numerous cities have supported these organizations in modest ways. See Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities"; and "Community Economic Development: Strategies and Practices of the 1980s," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 343-50. Vidal, Rebuilding Communities; Steven D. Soifer, "The Burlington Community Land Trust," Journal of Urban Affairs 12 (1990): 237-52.
170. Numerous cities have supported these organizations in modest ways. See Giloth, "Making Policy with Communities"; and "Community Economic Development: Strategies and Practices of the 1980s," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 343-50. Vidal, Rebuilding Communities; Steven D. Soifer, "The Burlington Community Land Trust," Journal of Urban Affairs 12 (1990): 237-52.
171. Vidal, Building Communities, 17-19; Peirce and Steinbach, Corrective Capitalism; Giloth, "Community Economic Development."
172. Vidal, Building Communities, 17-19; Peirce and Steinbach, Corrective Capitalism; Giloth, "Community Economic Development."
173. Vidal, Building Communities, 17-19; Peirce and Steinbach, Corrective Capitalism; Giloth, "Community Economic Development."
174. See David W. Hornbeck and Lester M. Salamon, eds. Human Capital and America's Future (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 3; Nathan Glazer, "A Human Capital Policy for the Cities," The Public Interest 112 (Summer 1993): 27-49.
175. See David W. Hornbeck and Lester M. Salamon, eds. Human Capital and America's Future (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 3; Nathan Glazer, "A Human Capital Policy for the Cities," The Public Interest 112 (Summer 1993): 27-49.
176. Joan Fitzgerald, "Labor Force, Education, and Work," in Theories of Local Economic Development, ed. Richard D. Bingham and Robert Mier (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1993), 125-46. On Baltimore's human investment strategy for urban revitalisation, see David Imbroscio et al. "Baltimore and the Human Investment Challenge," in Urban Revitalisation, ed. Fritz W. Wagner et al. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995), 38-68.
177. Joan Fitzgerald, "Labor Force, Education, and Work," in Theories of Local Economic Development, ed. Richard D. Bingham and Robert Mier (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1993), 125-46. On Baltimore's human investment strategy for urban revitalisation, see David Imbroscio et al. "Baltimore and the Human Investment Challenge," in Urban Revitalisation, ed. Fritz W. Wagner et al. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995), 38-68.
178. Jonas, for example, sees "the principle of the duality of social structure" as the "common theme" running throughout the "new urban politics literature." Andrew E.G. Jonas, "Urban Theory: Reworking the Division of Labor," Urban Geography 14 (1993): 397. In the international relations field, Wendt's highly influential work also adopts the duality of structure perspective. See Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem." Likewise, in separate contributions to the literature, Taylor and Berejikian - while themselves rejecting this perspective - acknowledge, respectively, that it is a "currently popular view" and "growing in popularity." See Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action," 118; Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action," 647.
179. Jonas, for example, sees "the principle of the duality of social structure" as the "common theme" running throughout the "new urban politics literature." Andrew E.G. Jonas, "Urban Theory: Reworking the Division of Labor," Urban Geography 14 (1993): 397. In the international relations field, Wendt's highly influential work also adopts the duality of structure perspective. See Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem." Likewise, in separate contributions to the literature, Taylor and Berejikian - while themselves rejecting this perspective - acknowledge, respectively, that it is a "currently popular view" and "growing in popularity." See Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action," 118; Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action," 647.
180. Jonas, for example, sees "the principle of the duality of social structure" as the "common theme" running throughout the "new urban politics literature." Andrew E.G. Jonas, "Urban Theory: Reworking the Division of Labor," Urban Geography 14 (1993): 397. In the international relations field, Wendt's highly influential work also adopts the duality of structure perspective. See Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem." Likewise, in separate contributions to the literature, Taylor and Berejikian - while themselves rejecting this perspective - acknowledge, respectively, that it is a "currently popular view" and "growing in popularity." See Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action," 118; Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action," 647.
181. Jonas, for example, sees "the principle of the duality of social structure" as the "common theme" running throughout the "new urban politics literature." Andrew E.G. Jonas, "Urban Theory: Reworking the Division of Labor," Urban Geography 14 (1993): 397. In the international relations field, Wendt's highly influential work also adopts the duality of structure perspective. See Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem." Likewise, in separate contributions to the literature, Taylor and Berejikian - while themselves rejecting this perspective - acknowledge, respectively, that it is a "currently popular view" and "growing in popularity." See Taylor, "Structure, Culture, and Action," 118; Berejikian, "Revolutionary Collective Action," 647.
182. Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 359. See also Sowell, "A Theory of Structure," 4.
183. Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem," 359. See also Sowell, "A Theory of Structure," 4.
184. Reed, "The Black Urban Regime," 161.