Conflict management learning? Policy reflections and institutional reforms

Global Governance

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 425-455

  Fosdick, Anna ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033263473     PISSN: 10752846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/19426720-00504003     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. The metaphor of a "two-level game" was devised by Robert Putnam and Nicholas Bayne to convey the differing restraints and opportunities government leaders face at the domestic and international levels. According to Putnam and Bayne, "At the national level, domestic groups seek to maximize their interests by pressuring the government to adopt favorable policies, and politicians seek power by constructing coalitions among those groups. At the international level, national governments seek to maximize their own freedom to satisfy domestic pressures, while minimizing the adverse consequences of foreign developments." See Putnam and Bayne, Hanging Together: Cooperation and Conflict in the Seven-Power Summits (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), p. 10; Robert D. Putnam, "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games," International Organization 42, no. 3 (summer 1988): 427-460. Emanuel Adler has corrected for the dynamism missing from Putnam and Bayne's original formulation with the observation that "two-level games are not only about fixed interests and power, but about the selection, retention, and spread of expectations and values at national and international levels." Adler, "Cognitive Evolution: A Dynamic Approach for the Study of International Relations and Their Progress," in Adler, Beverly Crawford, and Jack Donnelly, eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), p. 51.
2. The metaphor of a "two-level game" was devised by Robert Putnam and Nicholas Bayne to convey the differing restraints and opportunities government leaders face at the domestic and international levels. According to Putnam and Bayne, "At the national level, domestic groups seek to maximize their interests by pressuring the government to adopt favorable policies, and politicians seek power by constructing coalitions among those groups. At the international level, national governments seek to maximize their own freedom to satisfy domestic pressures, while minimizing the adverse consequences of foreign developments." See Putnam and Bayne, Hanging Together: Cooperation and Conflict in the Seven-Power Summits (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), p. 10; Robert D. Putnam, "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games," International Organization 42, no. 3 (summer 1988): 427-460. Emanuel Adler has corrected for the dynamism missing from Putnam and Bayne's original formulation with the observation that "two-level games are not only about fixed interests and power, but about the selection, retention, and spread of expectations and values at national and international levels." Adler, "Cognitive Evolution: A Dynamic Approach for the Study of International Relations and Their Progress," in Adler, Beverly Crawford, and Jack Donnelly, eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), p. 51.
3. The metaphor of a "two-level game" was devised by Robert Putnam and Nicholas Bayne to convey the differing restraints and opportunities government leaders face at the domestic and international levels. According to Putnam and Bayne, "At the national level, domestic groups seek to maximize their interests by pressuring the government to adopt favorable policies, and politicians seek power by constructing coalitions among those groups. At the international level, national governments seek to maximize their own freedom to satisfy domestic pressures, while minimizing the adverse consequences of foreign developments." See Putnam and Bayne, Hanging Together: Cooperation and Conflict in the Seven-Power Summits (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), p. 10; Robert D. Putnam, "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games," International Organization 42, no. 3 (summer 1988): 427-460. Emanuel Adler has corrected for the dynamism missing from Putnam and Bayne's original formulation with the observation that "two-level games are not only about fixed interests and power, but about the selection, retention, and spread of expectations and values at national and international levels." Adler, "Cognitive Evolution: A Dynamic Approach for the Study of International Relations and Their Progress," in Adler, Beverly Crawford, and Jack Donnelly, eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), p. 51.
4. "As of 31 August 1998, the U.S. owed the UN nearly $1.6 billion for past debts and current obligations, including almost $570 million for the regular budget and just over $1 billion for peacekeeping." UNA-USA Publications, "Talking Points on US-UN Relations" (online), http://www.unausa.org/publications/talkpts. htm, p. 2.
5. Interviewed by the author, 20 June 1995.
6. Interviewed by the author, 19 July 1995.
7. Interviewed by the author, 12 June 1995.
8. Interviewed by the author, 20 June 1995.
9. Statement of Bernard Miyet, in "Transcript of the Press Conference by Mr. Bernard Miyet, Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations," United Nations Headquarters, 29 May 1998 (online), http://www.un.org/Depts/ DPKO/pk50_p.htm, p. 2.
10. Interviewed by the author, 21 June 1995.
11. Interviewed by the author, 8 June 1995.
12. Interviewed by the author, 19 July 1995.
13. Interviewed by the author, 29 June 1995.
14. Interviewed by the author, 20 June 1995.
15. Interviewed by the author, 16 June 1995.
16. United Nations Department of Public Information, United Nations PeaceKeeping (New York: United Nations, December 1994).
17. Interviewed by the author, 19 July 1995.
18. Interviewed by the author, 29 June 1995.
19. Interviewed by the author, 9 June 1995.
20. Interviewed by the author, 16 June 1995.
21. Interviewed by the author, 11 July 1995.
22. Interviewed by the author, 9 June 1995.
23. Interviewed by the author, 14 June 1995.
24. Interviewed by the author, 6 June 1995.
25. Interviewed by the author, 21 June 1995.
26. Interviewed by the author, 8 June 1995.
27. Interviewed by the author, 18 July 1995.
28. Interviewed by the author, 15 June 1995.
29. Interviewed by the author, 16 June 1995.
30. Interviewed by the author, 17 July 1995.
31. Interviewed by the author, 14 June 1995.
32. Interviewed by the author, 12 June 1995.
33. Interviewed by the author, 9 June 1995.
34. Interviewed by the author, 10 July 1995.
35. Interviewed by the author, 13 June 1995.
36. Interviewed by the author, 12 June 1995.
37. William J. Durch, ed., The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), p. 2.
38. Interviewed by the author, 15 June 1995.
39. Interviewed by the author, 16 June 1995.
40. Interviewed by the author, 21 June 1995.
41. Michael Stopford, "Locating the Balance: The United Nations and the New World Disorder," Virginia Journal of International Law 34, no. 3 (spring 1994): 694.
42. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, "Supplement to An Agenda for Peace: Position Paper of the Secretary-General on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations," UN Doc. A/50/60-S/1995/1, 3 January 1995, p. 14.
43. Interviewed by the author, 17 July 1995.
44. Ibid.
45. Interviewed by the author, 12 June 1995.
46. Interviewed by the author, 18 July 1995.
47. Interviewed by the author, 7 June 1995.
48. Interviewed by the author, 10 July 1995.
49. Interviewed by the author, 21 June 1995.
50. Interviewed by the author, 10 July 1995.
51. Interviewed by the author, 12 June 1995.
52. Interviewed by the author, 6 June 1995.
53. Interviewed by the author, 14 June 1995.
54. Interviewed by the author, 18 July 1995.
55. Official in the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, interviewed by the author, 12 June 1995.
56. Interviewed by the author, 21 June 1995.
57. Cindy Collins and Thomas G. Weiss, "An Overview and Assessment of 1989-1996 Peace Operations Publications," Occasional Paper No. 28 (Providence, R.I.: Thomas J. Watson Jr. Institute for International Studies, Brown University, 1997), p. 11.
58. Kofi Annan, "Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform," 14 July 1997, intro. and par. 28.
59. Member of the New Zealand mission to the UN, interviewed by the author, 13 June 1995.
60. Interviewed by the author, 12 June 1995.
61. Security Council press release SC/6578, "Security Council Calls on African States to Settle Disputes Peacefully, Expresses Continuing Concern Over Number, Intensity of Conflicts," 24 September 1998.
62. UN General Assembly press release GA/SPD/75, "Financial, Administrative Streamlining Enhance Overall Peace-keeping Efforts, Under-Secretary-General for Peace-keeping Operations Tells Fourth Committee," 13 November 1995.
63. Annan, "Renewing the United Nations."
64. UN General Assembly press release GA/SPD/75.
65. Ibid.; Annan, "Renewing the United Nations."
66. Ibid.; Annan, "Renewing the United Nations."
67. The twelve troop contributors who have developed SHIRBRIG include Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and Sweden.
68. UN General Assembly press release GA/SPD/119, "Decisions to Deploy Peacekeeping Operations Should Be Effected Quickly, Fourth Committee Is Told," 11 November. 1997.
69. Confirmed by Bernard Miyet, under-secretary-general for peacekeeping operations, UN General Assembly press release GA/SPD/121, "Assembly Would Endorse Recommendations of Special Committee on Peacekeeping, By Fourth Committee Draft," 14 November 1997.
70. U.K. Army, Wider Peacekeeping (London: HMSO, 1995), p. xii.
71. U.S. Army, Field Manual 100-23, Peace Operations (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, December 1994).
72. Interviewed by the author, 11 July 1995.
73. NATO, "The Transformation of NATO's Defense Posture," Fact Sheet No. 22, July 1997.
74. NATO, "What Is NATO?" Fact Sheet No. 12, June 1997.
75. NATO support for peace efforts in the former Yugoslavia has evolved with the changing ground situation. From 1992 to 1995, NATO supported the Blue Helmets. With the signing of the Dayton accords and the withdrawal of the Blue Helmets in December 1995, the organization moved in with the NATO-led Implementation Force (IFOR). This force was replaced with a NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) in late 1996.
76. NATO, "The Enhanced Partnership for Peace Programme (PfP)," Fact Sheet No. 9, July 1997.
77. NATO, "Political-Military Steering Committee Ad Hoc Group on Cooperation in Peacekeeping," Fact Sheet No. 14, July 1997.
78. Ibid.
79. John Kriendler, "PfP Crisis Management Activities: Enhancing Capabilities and Cooperation," NATO Review 46, no. 3 (autumn 1998): 28-31 (web edition).
80. Ibid.
81. International Committee of the Red Cross, "Challenges of the Nineties: ICRC Special Report on Activities, 1990-1995," 1 November 1995.
82. Rony Brauman and Joell Tanguy, "The Médecins sans Frontières Experience," Doctors Without Borders USA, 1998 (online), http://www.dwb.org/ reports/msfexeperience.htm.
83. Lisa Witzig Davidson, Margaret Daly Hayes, and James J. Landon, Humanitarian and Peace Operations: NGOs and the Military in the Interagency Process (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, December 1996).
84. Brauman and Tanguy, "The Médecins sans Frontières Experience."
85. Ibid.; Doctors Without Borders USA, "Breaking the Cycle: Doctors Without Borders/Médecins sans Frontières (MSF) Calls for Action in the Rwandese Refugee Camps in Tanzania and Zaire," 10 November 1994 (online), http://www. dwb.org/reports/msfexeperience.htm.
86. Ibid.; Doctors Without Borders USA, "Breaking the Cycle: Doctors Without Borders/Médecins sans Frontières (MSF) Calls for Action in the Rwandese Refugee Camps in Tanzania and Zaire," 10 November 1994 (online), http://www. dwb.org/reports/msfexeperience.htm.
87. Refugees International, "The Role of Refugees International in the Lifecycle of a Humanitarian Crisis," (online), http://www.refintl.org/docs/RI/ structmod.shtml, p. 1.
88. International Committee of the Red Cross, "Challenges of the Nineties."
89. Davidson, Hayes, and Landon, Humanitarian and Peace Operations.
90. Ibid.
91. Collins and Weiss, "An Overview and Assessment of 1989-1996 Peace Operations Publications," p. 11.
92. Security Council press release SC/6578, "Security Council Calls on African States to Settle Disputes Peacefully, Expresses Continuing Concern Over Number, Intensity of Conflicts," 24 September 1998.
93. Col. Michael J. Snell, Canadian mission to the UN, summary of discussion comments in "50 Years of United Nations Peacekeeping, 1948-1998: A Panel Discussion," United Nations Headquarters, 11 June 1998 (online), http://www.un.org/ Depts/DPKO/pk50ngo.htm, p. 3.
94. Canadian representative Lester Pearson and UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold used the term Chapter VI1/2 to describe their 1956 invention of force-level peacekeeping - a mechanism that falls short of the collective security system laid out in Chapter VII of the charter but involves more forcible actions than those laid out in Chapter VI of the charter.
95. Interviewed by the author, 7 June 1995.
96. Interviewed by the author, 12 June 1995.
97. John Mackinlay and Jarat Chopra, "Second Generation Multinational Operations," Washington Quarterly 15, no. 3 (summer 1992): 118.
98. Sarah B. Sewall, "Peace Operations: A Department of Defense Perspective," SAIS Review 15, no. 1 (winter-spring 1995): 129.