Science and civil society in Japan: Physicists as public men and policymakers

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 193-225

  Low, Morris ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033259914     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757824     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. For details see Morris Low, Shigeru Nakayama, and Hitoshi Yoshioka, Science, technology and society in contemporary Japan (Cambridge, U.K., 1999).
2. Clifford Chanin, "Voice of the people: The development of NGOs in Japan," paper presented at "Civil society in Japan (and America): Coping with change" (Washington, D.C., 1998).
3. Shin'ichi Yoshida, "Rethinking the public interest in Japan: Civil society in the making," in Tadashi Yamamoto, ed., Deciding the public good: Governance and civil society in Japan (Tokyo, 1999), 13-49, esp. 14.
4. David Holloway, "Physics, the state, and civil society in the Soviet Union," in this volume.
5. James R. Bartholomew, "Why was there no scientific revolution in Tokugawa Japan?," Japanese studies in the history of science, 15 (1976), 111-125.
6. Andrew E. Barshay, State and intellectual in imperial Japan: The public man in crisis (Berkeley, 1988), xiii, 24.
7. James R. Bartholomew, The formation of science in Japan: Building a research tradition (New Haven, 1989), 133.
8. Shigeru Nakayama, Teikoku daigaku no tanjô (The birth of imperial universities) (Tokyo, 1978), esp. 34-71.
9. For details of this process, see D.E. Westney, Imitation and innovation: The transfer of Western organizational patterns to Meiji Japan (Cambridge, 1987).
10. Shigeru Nakayama, trans. Jerry Dusenbury, Academic and scientific traditions in China, Japan and the West (Tokyo, 1984), 219-220.
11. James R. Bartholomew, "The Japanese scientific community in formation, 1870-1920: Part 1," Journal of Asian affairs, 5:1 (1980), 62-84.
12. Hiro Tawara, Pioneers of physics in the early days of Japan (Amsterdam, 1989), 57-58.
13. David Cahan, An institute for an empire: The Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, 1871-1918 (Cambridge, 1989).
14. General Headquarters, Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, Japanese natural resources: A comprehensive survey (Tokyo, 1949), 506.
15. Shimpei Miyata, Kagakushatachi no jiyû na rakuen: Kôei no Rikagaku Kenkyûjo (The scientists' paradise: The famous Institute of Physical and Chemical Research) (Tokyo, 1983), 186.
16. "Nishina kenkyûshitsu no hassoku" ("The establishment of the Nishina Laboratory"), Mugendai, 85 (Fall 1990), 46.
17. This is based on an exchange rate of 2 yen per U.S. dollar. After 1931, the yen was devalued, with a new rate of about 4 yen per U.S. dollar remaining in place for the rest of the 1930s. From Al Alletzhauser, The house of Nomura (London, 1990), Appen. 6.
18. Tetu Hirosige, Kagaku to rekishi (Science and history) (Tokyo, 1970, 1980), 228.
19. See Morris F. Low, "The useful war: Radar and the mobilization of science and industry in Japan," in Roy M. MacLeod, ed., Science and the Pacific War (Lancaster, U.K., in press); Yutaka Kawamura and Masakatsu Yamazaki, "Butsuri Kondankai to Kyû-Nihon Kaigun ni okeru kaku oyobi kyôryoku magunetoron kaihatsu" ("The Physics Committee and the former Japanese Navy's project for the development of atomic energy and a powerful magnetron during the Second World War"), Kagakushi kenkyû, 37:207 (1998), 163-171.
20. See Morris F. Low, "The useful war: Radar and the mobilization of science and industry in Japan," in Roy M. MacLeod, ed., Science and the Pacific War (Lancaster, U.K., in press); Yutaka Kawamura and Masakatsu Yamazaki, "Butsuri Kondankai to Kyû-Nihon Kaigun ni okeru kaku oyobi kyôryoku magunetoron kaihatsu" ("The Physics Committee and the former Japanese Navy's project for the development of atomic energy and a powerful magnetron during the Second World War"), Kagakushi kenkyû, 37:207 (1998), 163-171.
21. Charles Weiner, "Retroactive saber rattling? A note on nuclear physics in Japan," Bulletin of the atomic scientists, 34:4 (Apr 1978), 10-12.
22. Morris F. Low, "Japan's secret war? 'Instant' scientific manpower and Japan's World War II atomic bomb project," Annals of science, 47:4 (1990), 347-360; R.W. Home and Morris F. Low, "Postwar scientific intelligence missions to Japan," Isis, 84 (1993), 527-537; John Dower, Japan in war and peace: Essays on history, culture and race (London, 1995), 55-100.
23. Morris F. Low, "Japan's secret war? 'Instant' scientific manpower and Japan's World War II atomic bomb project," Annals of science, 47:4 (1990), 347-360; R.W. Home and Morris F. Low, "Postwar scientific intelligence missions to Japan," Isis, 84 (1993), 527-537; John Dower, Japan in war and peace: Essays on history, culture and race (London, 1995), 55-100.
24. Morris F. Low, "Japan's secret war? 'Instant' scientific manpower and Japan's World War II atomic bomb project," Annals of science, 47:4 (1990), 347-360; R.W. Home and Morris F. Low, "Postwar scientific intelligence missions to Japan," Isis, 84 (1993), 527-537; John Dower, Japan in war and peace: Essays on history, culture and race (London, 1995), 55-100.
25. Chalmers Johnson, M.I.T.I. and the Japanese miracle: The growth of industrial policy, 1925-1975 (Stanford, 1982), 307.
26. J.A.A. Stockwin, Governing Japan: Divided politics in a major economy, 3rd edn. (Oxford, 1999), 17-36.
27. Shôzô Mori, ed., Senpû nijûnen: Kaikin Shûwa rimen shi (The twenty-year whirlwind: Exposing the inside story of the Showa period) (2 vols., Tokyo, 1945, 1946). Cited in John W. Dower, Embracing defeat: Japan in the wake of World War II (New York, 1999), 490.
28. Shôzô Mori, ed., Senpû nijûnen: Kaikin Shûwa rimen shi (The twenty-year whirlwind: Exposing the inside story of the Showa period) (2 vols., Tokyo, 1945, 1946). Cited in John W. Dower, Embracing defeat: Japan in the wake of World War II (New York, 1999), 490.
29. Dower (ibid.), 494.
30. Stockwin (ref. 23), 43.
31. Asahi shinbun, 14 Sep 1945. Cited in Dower (ref. 24), 495.
32. Stockwin (ref. 23), 38-40.
33. Ibid., 95.
34. Jean-Jacques Salomon, "Science policy studies and the development of science policy," in Ina Spiegel-Rösing and Derek de Solla Price, eds., Science, technology and society: A cross-disciplinary perspective (London, 1977), 43-70, esp. 48.
35. The Japanese reforms "reflected the full range of the then American political spectrum: left, liberal, New Deal, mainline American, conservative, military." Herbert Passin, "The Occupation: Some reflections," Daedalus, 119:3 (Summer 1990), 107-29, on 114. See also Hideo Yoshikawa and Joanne Kauffman, Science has no national borders: Harry C. Kelly and the reconstruction of science in postwar Japan (Cambridge, 1994); Jessica Wang, "Liberals, the progressive left, and the political economy of postwar American science: The National Science Foundation debate revisited," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 139-166.
36. The Japanese reforms "reflected the full range of the then American political spectrum: left, liberal, New Deal, mainline American, conservative, military." Herbert Passin, "The Occupation: Some reflections," Daedalus, 119:3 (Summer 1990), 107-29, on 114. See also Hideo Yoshikawa and Joanne Kauffman, Science has no national borders: Harry C. Kelly and the reconstruction of science in postwar Japan (Cambridge, 1994); Jessica Wang, "Liberals, the progressive left, and the political economy of postwar American science: The National Science Foundation debate revisited," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 139-166.
37. The Japanese reforms "reflected the full range of the then American political spectrum: left, liberal, New Deal, mainline American, conservative, military." Herbert Passin, "The Occupation: Some reflections," Daedalus, 119:3 (Summer 1990), 107-29, on 114. See also Hideo Yoshikawa and Joanne Kauffman, Science has no national borders: Harry C. Kelly and the reconstruction of science in postwar Japan (Cambridge, 1994); Jessica Wang, "Liberals, the progressive left, and the political economy of postwar American science: The National Science Foundation debate revisited," HSPS, 26:1 (1995), 139-166.
38. Yoshio Nishina, "Nihon saiken to kagaku" ("Science and the reconstruction of Japan"), Shizen, 1 (May 1946), essay dated 12 Mar 1946, reprinted in Shizen, 300 (Mar 1971), 15-18, on 17, my translation.
39. Yoshio Nishina, "Nihon saiken to kagaku" ("Science and the reconstruction of Japan"), Shizen, 1 (May 1946), essay dated 12 Mar 1946, reprinted in Shizen, 300 (Mar 1971), 15-18, on 17, my translation.
40. Draft of "Summary of activities of Scientific and Technical Division in science reorganization," GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (B) 11598. National Diet Library, Tokyo.
41. For details of the voting see "Minutes of 1st general meeting of J.S.C., 20 January 1949 at the Japan Academy Auditorium," GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (B) 11634.
42. Bowen C. Dees, The Allied Occupation and Japan's economic miracle (Richmond, Surrey, 1997), 188-193.
43. This is discussed in both Shigeru Nakayama, Science, technology and society in Japan (London, 1991), 117-119; and Dees (ibid.).
44. This is discussed in both Shigeru Nakayama, Science, technology and society in Japan (London, 1991), 117-119; and Dees (ibid.).
45. Fumio Yamazaki, "A short biography of Dr. Yoshio Nishina," in Sin-itirô Tomonaga and Hidehiko Tamaki, eds., Nishina Yoshio: Denki to kaisô (Yoshio Nishina: Biography and reminiscences) (Tokyo, 1952), 3-15, esp. 14.
46. Shôichi Sakata, Kagakusha to shakai, ronshû (Scientists and society, collected papers), Vol. 2 (Tokyo, 1972), 422-423. Shunkichi Hirokawa and Shuzô Ogawa, "Shôichi Sakata: His physics and methodology," Historia scientiarum, 36 (1989), 67-81, esp. 67.
47. Shôichi Sakata, Kagakusha to shakai, ronshû (Scientists and society, collected papers), Vol. 2 (Tokyo, 1972), 422-423. Shunkichi Hirokawa and Shuzô Ogawa, "Shôichi Sakata: His physics and methodology," Historia scientiarum, 36 (1989), 67-81, esp. 67.
48. Sakata (ref. 38), 424.
49. Ibid., 424-425.
50. J.D. Bernal, The social function of science (London, 1939), 267.
51. For details of the activities of the Special Higher Police, see Elise K. Tipton, The Japanese police state: The Tokkô in interwar Japan (North Sydney, 1990).
52. Taketani, Shisô o oru (The interweaving of ideas) (Tokyo, 1985), 76-84.
53. Ibid., 92-97, 104-106.
54. Ibid., 107-108.
55. Ibid., 118-19.
56. See Alice Kimball Smith, A peril and a hope: The scientists' movement in America, 1945-47 (Chicago, 1965); William McGucken, Scientists, society and state: The social relations of science movement in Great Britain, 1931-1947 (Colombus, 1984).
57. See Alice Kimball Smith, A peril and a hope: The scientists' movement in America, 1945-47 (Chicago, 1965); William McGucken, Scientists, society and state: The social relations of science movement in Great Britain, 1931-1947 (Colombus, 1984).
58. Masanori Ônuma, Yôichirô Fujii, and Kunioki Katô, Sengo Nihon kagakusha undôshi, jyô (The history of the postwar Japanese scientist movement, Part one) (Tokyo, 1975), 23-24.
59. A list of foundation members and office bearers is included in Hideomi Tuge, Minka to watakushi: Sengo hito kagakusha no ayumi (The Association of Democratic Scientists and I: The postwar story of a scientist) (Tokyo, 1980), 294.
60. There are strong parallels with England. See Gary Werskey, The visible college (London, 1978).
61. For an explanation of Taketani's concept of technology see Yoshirô Hoshino, "On concepts of technology," in Shigeru Nakayama, David L. Swain, and Eri Yagi, eds., Science and society in modern Japan (Tokyo, 1974), 39-50.
62. Translation of summary of interview with Mituo Taketani, Minshû hvôron (People's review), June 1949, GHQ/SCAP records, Item no. 10, ESS (E) 06394, National Diet Library, Tokyo.
63. This is discussed in Paul Forman, "Social niche and self-image of the American physicist," in Michelangelo De Maria, Mario Grilli, and Fabio Sebastiani, eds., The restructuring of physical sciences in Europe and the United States, 1945-1960 (Singapore, 1989), 96-104, esp. 98.
64. The Physical Society of Japan was established from part of what had previously been the Physico-Mathematical Society of Japan. A particle theory sectional meeting was formed at the same time. This group later divided up into a particle theory and nuclear theory group. Tetu Hirosige, Sengo Nihon no kagaku undô (Postwar Japan science movement) (Tokyo, 1960), 181-182. Bi-annual meetings of the Elementary Particle Theory Forum (as part of Physical Society conferences) have provided and do still provide an occasion for group decision-making, while administrative work has been shared by an "Elementary Particle Theory Group Secretariat" which rotates every 3 to 4 months from campus to campus.
65. Cf. Bernal (ref. 41), 265.
66. Draft translation by "George" of Shôichi Sakata, "Abolish the sectionalism: On the democratization of [sic] research system," Tokyo Imperial University newspaper, no. 1004 (Wed., 13 Nov 1946), GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (E) 06393, National Diet Library, Tokyo.
67. Sakata (ref. 38), 48.
68. Japan Atomic Industrial Forum, Nihon no genshiryoku: 15 nen no ayumi, jyô (Atomic energy in Japan: A 15-year history, part 1) (Tokyo, 1971), 12-14.
69. Elementary Particle Theory Group, Nagoya University Branch, "A short history of the research group of the theory of elementary particles of Japan," mimeographed article, Sakata Archival Library, Nagoya University, 5.
70. For a list of these members see Yoshinori Kaneseki, "The Elementary Particle Theory Group," in Nakayama et al. (ref. 51), 221-252, esp. 222-229.
71. Tetu Hirosige, Sengo Nihon no kagaku undô (Postwar Japan science movement) (Tokyo, 1960), 184-185.
72. Kiyonobu Itakura, "Kagakusha no jishuteki na soshiki" ("An independent organization of scientists"), in Mituo Taketani, ed., Shizen kagaku gairon, daiikkan: Kagaku gijutsu to Nihon shakai (An introduction to the natural sciences, Vol. 1: Science, technology and Japanese society) (Tokyo, 1962), 155-173.
73. "Kagaku no ronri to seiji no ronri: Gakujutsu Kaigi nijûnen" ("The logic of science and the logic of government: Twenty years of the Science Council of Japan") (1968), in Sakata (ref. 38), 389-393.
74. Sakata (ref. 38), 430.
75. This was also the case in the U.S. See Brian Balogh, Chain reaction: Expert debate and public participation in American commercial nuclear power, 1945-1975 (Cambridge, 1991).
76. See for example, Hideki Yukawa, trans. L.M. Brown and R. Yoshida, Tabibito (The traveler) (Singapore, 1982); Hideki Yukawa, trans. John Bester, Creativity and intuition: A physicist looks at East and West (Tokyo, 1973).
77. See for example, Hideki Yukawa, trans. L.M. Brown and R. Yoshida, Tabibito (The traveler) (Singapore, 1982); Hideki Yukawa, trans. John Bester, Creativity and intuition: A physicist looks at East and West (Tokyo, 1973).
78. Takashi Hayakawa, Nihon no jôryû shakai to keibatsu (Japan's social elite and matrimonial influence) (Tokyo, 1983), 232.
79. Yasutaka Tanikawa, "Introduction and biographical sketch," in Hideki Yukawa, Hideki Yukawa: Scientific works (Tokyo, 1979), vii-viii.
80. Yukawa, Traveler (ref. 66), 170.
81. "Translation of Yukawa family record register," ESS files, GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (B) 11648, National Diet Library, Tokyo.
82. Yukawa, Traveler (ref. 66), 188.
83. Takeo Kuwabara, Ken Inoue and Michiji Konuma, eds., Yukawa Hideki (Hideki Yukawa) (Tokyo, 1984), 325; Yukawa, Traveler (ref. 66), 196-197.
84. Takeo Kuwabara, Ken Inoue and Michiji Konuma, eds., Yukawa Hideki (Hideki Yukawa) (Tokyo, 1984), 325; Yukawa, Traveler (ref. 66), 196-197.
85. Yukawa (ref. 68).
86. History of Science Society of Japan, ed., Nihon kagaku gijutsushi taikei, 13: butsurigaku (An outline of the history of science and technology in Japan, Vol. 13: Physics) (Tokyo, 1970), 441.
87. Michiji Konuma, "Social aspects of Japanese particle physics in the 1950s," in Laurie M. Brown, Max Dresden, and Lillian Hoddeson, eds., Pions to quarks: Particle physics in the 1950s (Cambridge, 1989), 536-548.
88. For details see Michiji Konuma, Chieko Masuzawa, and Yoshio Takada, "Resumption of international relationship of Japanese particle physicists after World War II," Historia scientiarum, 36 (1989), 23-41.
89. H.C. Kelly to Colonel L.K. Bunker, "Award of Nobel peace prize to Dr. Hideki Yukawa," 4 Nov 1949, ESS files, GHQ/SCAP records, National Diet Library, Tokyo. Laurence Bunker was a close military aide of General MacArthur.
90. For details of Kikuchi's career see Kikuchi Kinen Jigyôkai Henshû Iinkai, ed., Kikuchi Seishi: Gyôseki to tsuisô (Seishi Kikuchi: Achievements and reminiscences) (Tokyo, 1978).
91. His writings have been published as a 15-volume set entitled Tomonaga Shinichirô: Chosakushû (The collected works of Sin-itirô Tomonaga) (Tokyo, 1984, 1985).
92. Kennosuke Matsui, ed., Kaisô no Tomonaga Sin-itirô (Reminiscences of Sin-itirô Tomonaga) (Tokyo, 1980), 3-6, 8.
93. "Japan's hidden physicists: Men who will follow in Yukawa's footsteps," Nippon times (22 Nov 1949), GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (E) 06365, National Diet Library, Tokyo.
94. Satio Hayakawa, "Kenkyû shinkô ni tsutometa Tomonaga sensei" ("Prof. Tomonaga: A man who strove for the advancement of research"), Kagaku (Science), 49:12 (Dec 1979), 799-803, on 799.
95. Yukawa, Creativity (ref. 66), 191.
96. "Translation of extract of census register, Ômura city, Nagasaki prefecture, 17 September 1949," GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (B) 11649, "Travel abroad of Dr. Sagane" file, 9, National Diet Library, Tokyo.
97. Kôji Fushimi, "Sagane Ryôkichi sensei no mutsu no katsudô sô" ("Six aspects of the activities of Prof. Ryôkichi Sagane"), in Publication Committee, ed., Sagane Ryôkichi kinen bunshû (Collection of writings to commemorate Ryôkichi Sagane) (Tokyo, 1981), 121-124, on 121 and iii.
98. Fox to Kelly, 27 Oct 1949, GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (B) 11649, National Diet Library, Tokyo.
99. Publication Committee, ed. (ref. 85).
100. The diversity inherent within each group of actors goes beyond the scope of this paper, but it is fair to say that organizations such as Keidanren (Federation of Economic Organizations) serve as the leading voice and interest group for big business. Similarly, the ministries and agencies the bureaucracy each have their own characteristics and culture, but they are a highly educated elite with a number of common traits. Tokyo University graduates have dominated the civil service, with Law School alumni being particularly influential. There have been strong ties among the bureaucracy, Liberal Democratic Party and private sector, with many cases of public officials retiring from government ministries and standing for Parliament as LDP candidates or taking up positions on the boards of companies in areas related to their former ministries. See Johnson (ref. 22).
101. Satio Hayakawa and Morris F. Low, "Science policy and politics in post-war Japan: The establishment of the KEK High Energy Physics Laboratory," Annals of science, 48 (1991), 207-229; Lillian Hoddeson, "Establishing K.E.K. in Japan and Fermilab in the U.S.: Internationalism, nationalism and high energy accelerators," Social studies of science, 13 (1983), 1-48.
102. Satio Hayakawa and Morris F. Low, "Science policy and politics in post-war Japan: The establishment of the KEK High Energy Physics Laboratory," Annals of science, 48 (1991), 207-229; Lillian Hoddeson, "Establishing K.E.K. in Japan and Fermilab in the U.S.: Internationalism, nationalism and high energy accelerators," Social studies of science, 13 (1983), 1-48.
103. Satio Hayakawa, "List of academic publications," Hayakawa collection, Sakata Archival Library, Nagoya University.
104. "Personal history of Satio Hayakawa," GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (E) 06383, National Diet Library, Tokyo. Laurie M. Brown, "Yoichiro Nambu: The first forty years," Progress of theoretical physics supplement, no. 86 (1986), 1-11, draft of manuscript, 5, courtesy of Laurie Brown, Northwestern University.
105. Bruno Rossi to Hayakawa, 3 Apr 1950, GHQ/SCAP records, ESS (E) 06384, National Diet Library, Tokyo.
106. Fae L. Korsmo, "Science in the Cold War: The legacy of the International Geophysical Year," paper presented at the International Conference on Science, Technology and Society, Hiroshima, 20 Mar 1998.
107. This idea is discussed in Víctor M. Pérez-Díaz, The return of civil society: The emergence of democratic Spain (Cambridge, 1998), 50-51.
108. Morris F. Low, "Japan: The political economy of Japanese science - Nakasone, physicists and the state," in Etel Solingen, ed., Scientists and the state: Domestic structures and the international context (Ann Arbor, 1994), 93-125.
109. Hideki Yukawa, Shôichi Sakata, and Mituo Taketani, Shinri no ba ni tachite (Standing in the field of truth) (Tokyo, 1951).
110. Yuichi Ochi, "The organization and activities of the Science Council of Japan," Nature, 240 (24 Nov 1972), 187-190.
111. Alun Anderson, "Elected body goes out fighting," Nature, 315 (2 May 1985), 4.
112. Tokyo-Nagoya Working Group of Physics for 1964 Peking Symposium, "Methodology of elementary particle physics in Japan," Sakata Archival Library, Nagoya University.
113. Hayakawa and Low (ref. 89); Hoddeson (ref. 89).
114. Nagoya University, Hayakawa Sachio sensei tsuisôroku (Collection of reminiscences of Professor Satio Hayakawa) (Nagoya, 1994).
115. Victoria Lynn Bestor, "Reimagining 'civil society' in Japan," paper presented at "Civil society in Japan (and America): Coping with change" (Washington, D.C., 1998).
116. Yoshihiko Uchida, Nihon shihonshugi no shisôzô (Images of Japanese capitalism) (Tokyo, 1967); Kiyoaki Hirata, Shimin shakai to shakaishugi (Civil society and socialism) (Tokyo, 1969), Kiyoaki Hirata, Keizaigaku to rekishi ninshiki (Economics and the philosophy of history) (Tokyo, 1971). Cited in John Keane, Civil society: Old images, new visions (Cambridge, U.K., 1998), 12-13.
117. Yoshihiko Uchida, Nihon shihonshugi no shisôzô (Images of Japanese capitalism) (Tokyo, 1967); Kiyoaki Hirata, Shimin shakai to shakaishugi (Civil society and socialism) (Tokyo, 1969), Kiyoaki Hirata, Keizaigaku to rekishi ninshiki (Economics and the philosophy of history) (Tokyo, 1971). Cited in John Keane, Civil society: Old images, new visions (Cambridge, U.K., 1998), 12-13.
118. Yoshihiko Uchida, Nihon shihonshugi no shisôzô (Images of Japanese capitalism) (Tokyo, 1967); Kiyoaki Hirata, Shimin shakai to shakaishugi (Civil society and socialism) (Tokyo, 1969), Kiyoaki Hirata, Keizaigaku to rekishi ninshiki (Economics and the philosophy of history) (Tokyo, 1971). Cited in John Keane, Civil society: Old images, new visions (Cambridge, U.K., 1998), 12-13.
119. Yoshihiko Uchida, Nihon shihonshugi no shisôzô (Images of Japanese capitalism) (Tokyo, 1967); Kiyoaki Hirata, Shimin shakai to shakaishugi (Civil society and socialism) (Tokyo, 1969), Kiyoaki Hirata, Keizaigaku to rekishi ninshiki (Economics and the philosophy of history) (Tokyo, 1971). Cited in John Keane, Civil society: Old images, new visions (Cambridge, U.K., 1998), 12-13.
120. This idea is discussed in Arthur Edwards, "Scientific expertise and policymaking: The intermediary role of the public sphere," Science and public policy, 26:3 (June 1999), 163-170.
121. See for example, Christopher Freeman, "Japan: A new national system of innovation?", in Giovanni Dosi et al., eds., Technical change and economic theory (London, 1988), 330-348, on 345-346.
122. Japan Times Staff, "Obuchi urges quick dioxin review," Japan times international (1-15 Mar 1999), 5; Mick Corliss, "Panel urges stricter dioxin standards," Japan times international (16-30 June 1999), 15.
123. Japan Times Staff, "Obuchi urges quick dioxin review," Japan times international (1-15 Mar 1999), 5; Mick Corliss, "Panel urges stricter dioxin standards," Japan times international (16-30 June 1999), 15.
124. Michael Millett, "Sell? You gotta be dreamin'," Sydney morning herald (22 May 1999), 22.
125. "Pill for Japan," Courier mail (3 June, 1999), 19; Low, Nakayama, and Yoshioka (ref. 1).
126. Keizo Nabeshima, "A political taboo is shattered," Japan times international (16-31 Aug 1999), 18.
127. "Final reform report trims government to 13 entities," Japan times (4 Dec 1997), 1. Kan Kato suggests that the changes may only be superficial. See Kan Kato, "Administrative reform: Government reorganization a sham," Japan times international (16-30 June 1999), 19.
128. "Final reform report trims government to 13 entities," Japan times (4 Dec 1997), 1. Kan Kato suggests that the changes may only be superficial. See Kan Kato, "Administrative reform: Government reorganization a sham," Japan times international (16-30 June 1999), 19.
129. Kyodo News, "What's in a name change?", Japan times international (16-30 Apr 1999), 10.
130. Kyodo News, "Freedom-of-information bill wins Diet approval," Japan times international (1-15 May 1999), 6.