Organized crime and the business of migrant trafficking: An economic analysis

Crime, Law and Social Change

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 203-233

  Schloenhardt, Andreas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033259050     PISSN: 09254994     EISSN: 15730751     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1008340427104     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. Becker, "Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach," Journal of Political Economy, 1968, 3, 169-217.
2. Becker as cited in Sullivan, "The Economics of Crime," Crim&Del, 1973, (19), 138, 141.
3. For an overview of the early literature on the ecenomics of crime see Sullivan, supra note 2, at 138-149. For more recent studies see, for example, Adreano, Siegfried (eds.), The Economics of Crime, (Wiley & Sons, 1980); Findlay, The Globalisation of Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 138-166; Hellmann, The Economics of Crime, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980); Rottenberg (ed.), The Economics of Crime and Punishment, (Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1973).
4. For an overview of the early literature on the ecenomics of crime see Sullivan, supra note 2, at 138-149. For more recent studies see, for example, Adreano, Siegfried (eds.), The Economics of Crime, (Wiley & Sons, 1980); Findlay, The Globalisation of Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 138-166; Hellmann, The Economics of Crime, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980); Rottenberg (ed.), The Economics of Crime and Punishment, (Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1973).
5. For an overview of the early literature on the ecenomics of crime see Sullivan, supra note 2, at 138-149. For more recent studies see, for example, Adreano, Siegfried (eds.), The Economics of Crime, (Wiley & Sons, 1980); Findlay, The Globalisation of Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 138-166; Hellmann, The Economics of Crime, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980); Rottenberg (ed.), The Economics of Crime and Punishment, (Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1973).
6. For an overview of the early literature on the ecenomics of crime see Sullivan, supra note 2, at 138-149. For more recent studies see, for example, Adreano, Siegfried (eds.), The Economics of Crime, (Wiley & Sons, 1980); Findlay, The Globalisation of Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 138-166; Hellmann, The Economics of Crime, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980); Rottenberg (ed.), The Economics of Crime and Punishment, (Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1973).
7. For an overview of the early literature on the ecenomics of crime see Sullivan, supra note 2, at 138-149. For more recent studies see, for example, Adreano, Siegfried (eds.), The Economics of Crime, (Wiley & Sons, 1980); Findlay, The Globalisation of Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 138-166; Hellmann, The Economics of Crime, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980); Rottenberg (ed.), The Economics of Crime and Punishment, (Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1973).
8. Sullivan, supra note 2, at 140.
9. D. Smith, "Paragons, Pariahs, and Pirates: A Spectrum-Based Theory of Enterprise," Crim&Del, 1980, (26), 358, 369; cf D. Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," IJCP, 1978, (6), 161, 169.
10. D. Smith, "Paragons, Pariahs, and Pirates: A Spectrum-Based Theory of Enterprise," Crim&Del, 1980, (26), 358, 369; cf D. Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," IJCP, 1978, (6), 161, 169.
11. Smith, "Paragons, Pariahs, and Pirates," supra note 5, at 361.
12. US President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: Organized Crime, (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1967) 1.
13. Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," J Pub L, 1971, (20), 71, 71; cf. Schelling, "Economic Analysis and Organized Crime," in US President's Commission on Law Enforcement, supra note 7, at 114-115; Dick, "When Does Organized Crime Pay? A Transaction Cost Analysis," IRLE 1995, (15, 1), 25, 25.
14. Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," J Pub L, 1971, (20), 71, 71; cf. Schelling, "Economic Analysis and Organized Crime," in US President's Commission on Law Enforcement, supra note 7, at 114-115; Dick, "When Does Organized Crime Pay? A Transaction Cost Analysis," IRLE 1995, (15, 1), 25, 25.
15. Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," J Pub L, 1971, (20), 71, 71; cf. Schelling, "Economic Analysis and Organized Crime," in US President's Commission on Law Enforcement, supra note 7, at 114-115; Dick, "When Does Organized Crime Pay? A Transaction Cost Analysis," IRLE 1995, (15, 1), 25, 25.
16. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
17. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
18. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
19. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
20. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
21. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
22. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
23. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
24. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
25. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
26. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
27. See, for example (in order of publication), Cressey, Criminal Organisation: Its Elementary Forms, (London: Heinemann, 1972); Cohen, "The Concept of Criminal Organisation," BJ Crim 1977, (17, 2), 97-111; Anderson, The Business of Organized Crime, (Stanford: Hoover, 1979); Reuter, Disorganized Crime, (Cambridge: MIT, 1983); Alexander, Caiden (eds.), The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, (Lexington: Heath, 1985); O'Malley, "The Illegal Sector of Capital: A Theoretical Examination of 'Organizing Crime'," Contemporary Crises 1985, (9), 81-92; Moore, "Organized Crime as a Business Enterprise," in Edelhertz (ed.), Major Issues in Organized Crime Control, (Washington: US Department of Justice, 1987) 51-64; Martin, Romano, Multinational Crime, (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); Sieber, Bögel, Logistik der Organisierten Kriminalität, (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1993); Fiorentini, Peltzman (eds.), The Economics of Organized Crime, (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Iasco, Conflitto Criminale e Attivita' Economiche, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1996); Arlacchi, "Some Observations on Illegal Markets," in Ruggiero et al. (eds.), The New European Criminology, 203-215 (London: Routledge, 1998).
28. Savona et al., Globalisation of Crime, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1997) 2.
29. Cf. Adamoli et al., Organized Crime around the World, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1998) 17-18; Hermann, "Organized Crime and White Collar Crime: Prosecution of Organized Crime Infiltration of Legitimate Business," Rut LJ 1985, (16), 589, 591; Maltz, "On Defining 'Organized Crime'," Crim&Del 1976, 22, 338, 342; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1995) 6; Williams, Savona, The United Nations and Transnational Organized Crime, (London: Frank Cass, 1996) 1.
30. Cf. Adamoli et al., Organized Crime around the World, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1998) 17-18; Hermann, "Organized Crime and White Collar Crime: Prosecution of Organized Crime Infiltration of Legitimate Business," Rut LJ 1985, (16), 589, 591; Maltz, "On Defining 'Organized Crime'," Crim&Del 1976, 22, 338, 342; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1995) 6; Williams, Savona, The United Nations and Transnational Organized Crime, (London: Frank Cass, 1996) 1.
31. Cf. Adamoli et al., Organized Crime around the World, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1998) 17-18; Hermann, "Organized Crime and White Collar Crime: Prosecution of Organized Crime Infiltration of Legitimate Business," Rut LJ 1985, (16), 589, 591; Maltz, "On Defining 'Organized Crime'," Crim&Del 1976, 22, 338, 342; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1995) 6; Williams, Savona, The United Nations and Transnational Organized Crime, (London: Frank Cass, 1996) 1.
32. Cf. Adamoli et al., Organized Crime around the World, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1998) 17-18; Hermann, "Organized Crime and White Collar Crime: Prosecution of Organized Crime Infiltration of Legitimate Business," Rut LJ 1985, (16), 589, 591; Maltz, "On Defining 'Organized Crime'," Crim&Del 1976, 22, 338, 342; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1995) 6; Williams, Savona, The United Nations and Transnational Organized Crime, (London: Frank Cass, 1996) 1.
33. Cf. Adamoli et al., Organized Crime around the World, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1998) 17-18; Hermann, "Organized Crime and White Collar Crime: Prosecution of Organized Crime Infiltration of Legitimate Business," Rut LJ 1985, (16), 589, 591; Maltz, "On Defining 'Organized Crime'," Crim&Del 1976, 22, 338, 342; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1995) 6; Williams, Savona, The United Nations and Transnational Organized Crime, (London: Frank Cass, 1996) 1.
34. Dick, supra note 8, at 25-45; Sieber, "The Strategic Structures of Organized Crime," Comp LR 1995, (28, 2), 61, 66; Southerland, Potter, "Applying Organisation Theory to Organized Crime," J Cont Crim J 1993, 9, 3, 251-267.
35. Dick, supra note 8, at 25-45; Sieber, "The Strategic Structures of Organized Crime," Comp LR 1995, (28, 2), 61, 66; Southerland, Potter, "Applying Organisation Theory to Organized Crime," J Cont Crim J 1993, 9, 3, 251-267.
36. Dick, supra note 8, at 25-45; Sieber, "The Strategic Structures of Organized Crime," Comp LR 1995, (28, 2), 61, 66; Southerland, Potter, "Applying Organisation Theory to Organized Crime," J Cont Crim J 1993, 9, 3, 251-267.
37. Cf. Bersten, "Defining Organized Crime in Australia and the USA," ANZJ Crim 1990, (23), 39, 50; Dick, supra note 8, at 25; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 113, 123.
38. Cf. Bersten, "Defining Organized Crime in Australia and the USA," ANZJ Crim 1990, (23), 39, 50; Dick, supra note 8, at 25; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 113, 123.
39. Cf. Bersten, "Defining Organized Crime in Australia and the USA," ANZJ Crim 1990, (23), 39, 50; Dick, supra note 8, at 25; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 113, 123.
40. US National Prohibition Act of 28 October 1919, ch.85. The Act defined all beverages containing more than 0.5% alcohol as intoxicating and s12 of the Act provided that no person manufacture, sell, barter, transport, import, export, deliver, furnish or possess any intoxicating liquor.
41. Cf. Dick, supra note 8, at 36.
42. The legalisation of brothels and some forms of prostitution in Victoria, Australia starting in 1985, for instance, was followed by a significant rise in organized crime. Also, the legalisation of gambling in various countries did not reduce the opportunities for organized crime; it only increased competition.
43. For further reading on the globalisation of organized crime see, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII; Myers, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organized Crime from the East," CL&SC 1996, (24), 181, 183; Savona et al., Processi di Globalizzazione e Criminalità Organizzata Transnationale, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1998) 2-4, 6-9; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 5.
44. For further reading on the globalisation of organized crime see, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII; Myers, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organized Crime from the East," CL&SC 1996, (24), 181, 183; Savona et al., Processi di Globalizzazione e Criminalità Organizzata Transnationale, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1998) 2-4, 6-9; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 5.
45. For further reading on the globalisation of organized crime see, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII; Myers, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organized Crime from the East," CL&SC 1996, (24), 181, 183; Savona et al., Processi di Globalizzazione e Criminalità Organizzata Transnationale, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1998) 2-4, 6-9; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 5.
46. For further reading on the globalisation of organized crime see, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII; Myers, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organized Crime from the East," CL&SC 1996, (24), 181, 183; Savona et al., Processi di Globalizzazione e Criminalità Organizzata Transnationale, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1998) 2-4, 6-9; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 5.
47. From the literature on violence and organized crime see, for example, Martin, Romano, supra note 9, at 115; Moore, supra note 9, at 56; Reuter, Disorganiz ed Crime, supra note 9, at 132-150; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 6; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 7.
48. From the literature on violence and organized crime see, for example, Martin, Romano, supra note 9, at 115; Moore, supra note 9, at 56; Reuter, Disorganiz ed Crime, supra note 9, at 132-150; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 6; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 7.
49. From the literature on violence and organized crime see, for example, Martin, Romano, supra note 9, at 115; Moore, supra note 9, at 56; Reuter, Disorganiz ed Crime, supra note 9, at 132-150; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 6; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 7.
50. From the literature on violence and organized crime see, for example, Martin, Romano, supra note 9, at 115; Moore, supra note 9, at 56; Reuter, Disorganiz ed Crime, supra note 9, at 132-150; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 6; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 7.
51. From the literature on violence and organized crime see, for example, Martin, Romano, supra note 9, at 115; Moore, supra note 9, at 56; Reuter, Disorganiz ed Crime, supra note 9, at 132-150; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 6; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 7.
52. Bessozi, Organisierte Kriminalität und Empirische Forschung, (Zurich: Rüegger, 2nd ed., 1997) 9-10; Maltz, "Toward Defining Organized Crime," in The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 24-26; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 6.
53. Bessozi, Organisierte Kriminalität und Empirische Forschung, (Zurich: Rüegger, 2nd ed., 1997) 9-10; Maltz, "Toward Defining Organized Crime," in The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 24-26; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 6.
54. Bessozi, Organisierte Kriminalität und Empirische Forschung, (Zurich: Rüegger, 2nd ed., 1997) 9-10; Maltz, "Toward Defining Organized Crime," in The Politics and Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 24-26; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 6.
55. Beare, "Illegal Migration," in Hernandez, Pattugalan (eds.), Transnational Crime and Regional Security in the Asia-Pacific, (Quezon City: CSCAP, 1999) 277-279; Bolz, "Chinese Organized Crime and Illegal Alien Trafficking," Asian Affairs 1995, 22, 3, 147, 152.
56. Beare, "Illegal Migration," in Hernandez, Pattugalan (eds.), Transnational Crime and Regional Security in the Asia-Pacific, (Quezon City: CSCAP, 1999) 277-279; Bolz, "Chinese Organized Crime and Illegal Alien Trafficking," Asian Affairs 1995, 22, 3, 147, 152.
57. Abadinsky, Organized Crime, (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 4th ed., 1994) 7-8; Dick, supra note 8, at 26; Schelling, "Economics and Criminal Enterprise," supra note 8, at 379; Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," supra note 8, at 73-74.
58. Abadinsky, Organized Crime, (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 4th ed., 1994) 7-8; Dick, supra note 8, at 26; Schelling, "Economics and Criminal Enterprise," supra note 8, at 379; Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," supra note 8, at 73-74.
59. Abadinsky, Organized Crime, (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 4th ed., 1994) 7-8; Dick, supra note 8, at 26; Schelling, "Economics and Criminal Enterprise," supra note 8, at 379; Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," supra note 8, at 73-74.
60. Abadinsky, Organized Crime, (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 4th ed., 1994) 7-8; Dick, supra note 8, at 26; Schelling, "Economics and Criminal Enterprise," supra note 8, at 379; Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," supra note 8, at 73-74.
61. Cf. Cressey, "Methodological Problems in the Study of Organized Crime as a Social Problem," in Passas (ed.), Organized Crime, (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1995) 9; Southerland, Potter, supra note 12, at 252.
62. Cf. Cressey, "Methodological Problems in the Study of Organized Crime as a Social Problem," in Passas (ed.), Organized Crime, (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1995) 9; Southerland, Potter, supra note 12, at 252.
63. Cf. Hellmann, supra note 3, at 173; Schelling "Economics and Criminal Enterprise," supra note 8, at 393; Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," supra note 8, at 72; Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," supra note 5, at 171.
64. Cf. Hellmann, supra note 3, at 173; Schelling "Economics and Criminal Enterprise," supra note 8, at 393; Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," supra note 8, at 72; Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," supra note 5, at 171.
65. Cf. Hellmann, supra note 3, at 173; Schelling "Economics and Criminal Enterprise," supra note 8, at 393; Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," supra note 8, at 72; Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," supra note 5, at 171.
66. Cf. Hellmann, supra note 3, at 173; Schelling "Economics and Criminal Enterprise," supra note 8, at 393; Schelling, "What is the Business of Organized Crime?," supra note 8, at 72; Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," supra note 5, at 171.
67. Beare, supra note 20, at 263; Vagg, "The Borders of Crime," BJ Crim 1992, (32, 3), 310, 310-311, 319.
68. Beare, supra note 20, at 263; Vagg, "The Borders of Crime," BJ Crim 1992, (32, 3), 310, 310-311, 319.
69. For an analysis of migrant trafficking in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region see Schloenhardt, "The Business of Migration: Organised Crime and Illegal Migration in Australia and the Asia Pacific Region," Adel LR 1999, (21, 1), 81-114.
70. See, for example, Francis Ianni (1972) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 25; Moore, supra note 9, at 52-53; US President's Crime Commission (1967) in Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," supra note 5, at 161.
71. See, for example, Francis Ianni (1972) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 25; Moore, supra note 9, at 52-53; US President's Crime Commission (1967) in Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," supra note 5, at 161.
72. See, for example, Francis Ianni (1972) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 25; Moore, supra note 9, at 52-53; US President's Crime Commission (1967) in Smith, "Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship," supra note 5, at 161.
73. Rubin, "The Economic Theory of the Criminal Firm," in The Economics of Crime and Punishment, supra note 3, at 156-162; Southerland, Potter, supra note 12, at 259.
74. Rubin, "The Economic Theory of the Criminal Firm," in The Economics of Crime and Punishment, supra note 3, at 156-162; Southerland, Potter, supra note 12, at 259.
75. See, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 11-12; Joseph Albini (1971) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 26; Fiorentini, Peltzman in The Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 6; Hellmann, supra note 3, at 174; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 109; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 25.
76. See, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 11-12; Joseph Albini (1971) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 26; Fiorentini, Peltzman in The Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 6; Hellmann, supra note 3, at 174; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 109; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 25.
77. See, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 11-12; Joseph Albini (1971) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 26; Fiorentini, Peltzman in The Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 6; Hellmann, supra note 3, at 174; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 109; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 25.
78. See, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 11-12; Joseph Albini (1971) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 26; Fiorentini, Peltzman in The Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 6; Hellmann, supra note 3, at 174; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 109; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 25.
79. See, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 11-12; Joseph Albini (1971) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 26; Fiorentini, Peltzman in The Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 6; Hellmann, supra note 3, at 174; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 109; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 25.
80. See, for example, Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 11-12; Joseph Albini (1971) in Abadinsky, supra note 21, at 26; Fiorentini, Peltzman in The Economics of Organized Crime, supra note 9, at 6; Hellmann, supra note 3, at 174; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 109; Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 25.
81. Cf. Gunatilleke, "Seminar Report: International Response to Trafficking in Migrants and the Safeguarding of Migrant Rights," International Migration 1994, (32, 4), 593, 594; IOM, "Trafficking in Migrants: Characteristics and Trends in Different Regions of the World," discussion paper for the Eleventh IOM Seminar on Migration: International Response to Trafficking in Migrants and the Safeguarding of Human Rights, Geneva, 26-28 Oct 1994 (IOM, 1994) 3; Savona, Illicit Trafficking in Arms, Nuclear Material, People and Motor Vehicles, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1998) 10.
82. Cf. Gunatilleke, "Seminar Report: International Response to Trafficking in Migrants and the Safeguarding of Migrant Rights," International Migration 1994, (32, 4), 593, 594; IOM, "Trafficking in Migrants: Characteristics and Trends in Different Regions of the World," discussion paper for the Eleventh IOM Seminar on Migration: International Response to Trafficking in Migrants and the Safeguarding of Human Rights, Geneva, 26-28 Oct 1994 (IOM, 1994) 3; Savona, Illicit Trafficking in Arms, Nuclear Material, People and Motor Vehicles, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1998) 10.
83. Cf. Gunatilleke, "Seminar Report: International Response to Trafficking in Migrants and the Safeguarding of Migrant Rights," International Migration 1994, (32, 4), 593, 594; IOM, "Trafficking in Migrants: Characteristics and Trends in Different Regions of the World," discussion paper for the Eleventh IOM Seminar on Migration: International Response to Trafficking in Migrants and the Safeguarding of Human Rights, Geneva, 26-28 Oct 1994 (IOM, 1994) 3; Savona, Illicit Trafficking in Arms, Nuclear Material, People and Motor Vehicles, (Trent: TRANSCRIME, 1998) 10.
84. Ghosh, Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores, (The Hague: Kluwer, 1998) 23; Ruggiero, "Trafficking in Human Beings: Slaves in Contemporary Europe," IJSL 1997, (25), 231, 235; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe: New Patterns of an Old Nexus," in Schmid (ed.), Migration and Crime, (Milan: ISPAC, 1998).
85. Ghosh, Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores, (The Hague: Kluwer, 1998) 23; Ruggiero, "Trafficking in Human Beings: Slaves in Contemporary Europe," IJSL 1997, (25), 231, 235; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe: New Patterns of an Old Nexus," in Schmid (ed.), Migration and Crime, (Milan: ISPAC, 1998).
86. Ghosh, Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores, (The Hague: Kluwer, 1998) 23; Ruggiero, "Trafficking in Human Beings: Slaves in Contemporary Europe," IJSL 1997, (25), 231, 235; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe: New Patterns of an Old Nexus," in Schmid (ed.), Migration and Crime, (Milan: ISPAC, 1998).
87. Beare, supra note 20, at 272-275; Ghosh, supra note 30, at 23; Ruggiero, supra note 30, at 235; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 73.
88. Beare, supra note 20, at 272-275; Ghosh, supra note 30, at 23; Ruggiero, supra note 30, at 235; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 73.
89. Beare, supra note 20, at 272-275; Ghosh, supra note 30, at 23; Ruggiero, supra note 30, at 235; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 73.
90. Beare, supra note 20, at 272-275; Ghosh, supra note 30, at 23; Ruggiero, supra note 30, at 235; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 73.
91. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 17; Bögel, Strukturen und Systemanalyse der Organisierten Kriminalität in Deutschland, (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1994) 110-115; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, Draft Study on the Relationship between Organized Crime and Trafficking in Aliens, (Vienna: ICMPD, 1999) 16-17.
92. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 17; Bögel, Strukturen und Systemanalyse der Organisierten Kriminalität in Deutschland, (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1994) 110-115; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, Draft Study on the Relationship between Organized Crime and Trafficking in Aliens, (Vienna: ICMPD, 1999) 16-17.
93. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at VIII, 17; Bögel, Strukturen und Systemanalyse der Organisierten Kriminalität in Deutschland, (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1994) 110-115; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, Draft Study on the Relationship between Organized Crime and Trafficking in Aliens, (Vienna: ICMPD, 1999) 16-17.
94. Cf. Chin, "Smuggling of Chinese Aliens and Organized Crime," in Schmid (ed.), Migration and Crime, (Milan: ISPAC, 1998) 139; Schloenhardt as cited in UNICRI, Australian Institute of Criminology, Rapid Assessment: Human Smuggling and Trafficking from the Philippines, (Vienna: UNODCCP, 1999) 10-11; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, supra note 32, at 33-35.
95. Cf. Chin, "Smuggling of Chinese Aliens and Organized Crime," in Schmid (ed.), Migration and Crime, (Milan: ISPAC, 1998) 139; Schloenhardt as cited in UNICRI, Australian Institute of Criminology, Rapid Assessment: Human Smuggling and Trafficking from the Philippines, (Vienna: UNODCCP, 1999) 10-11; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, supra note 32, at 33-35.
96. Cf. Chin, "Smuggling of Chinese Aliens and Organized Crime," in Schmid (ed.), Migration and Crime, (Milan: ISPAC, 1998) 139; Schloenhardt as cited in UNICRI, Australian Institute of Criminology, Rapid Assessment: Human Smuggling and Trafficking from the Philippines, (Vienna: UNODCCP, 1999) 10-11; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, supra note 32, at 33-35.
97. Cf. Ruggiero, supra note 30, at 236; Salt, Stein, "Migration as a Business: The Case of Trafficking," Internationl Migration 1997, (35, 4), 467, 477; Zhang, Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organisation of Chinese Alien Smuggling," CL&SC 1996, 25, 1, 6.
98. Cf. Ruggiero, supra note 30, at 236; Salt, Stein, "Migration as a Business: The Case of Trafficking," Internationl Migration 1997, (35, 4), 467, 477; Zhang, Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organisation of Chinese Alien Smuggling," CL&SC 1996, 25, 1, 6.
99. Cf. Ruggiero, supra note 30, at 236; Salt, Stein, "Migration as a Business: The Case of Trafficking," Internationl Migration 1997, (35, 4), 467, 477; Zhang, Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organisation of Chinese Alien Smuggling," CL&SC 1996, 25, 1, 6.
100. For the example of the PR China see Houd, "Sourcing the Problem: Why Fuzhou?," in P. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling, (Washington: CSIS, 1997) 80-81; P. Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking: A Global Challenge," in P. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling. (Washington: CSIS, 1997) 14.
101. For the example of the PR China see Houd, "Sourcing the Problem: Why Fuzhou?," in P. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling, (Washington: CSIS, 1997) 80-81; P. Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking: A Global Challenge," in P. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling. (Washington: CSIS, 1997) 14.
102. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at 14; Bögel, supra note 32, at 153-158; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 477, 479-480, 490.
103. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at 14; Bögel, supra note 32, at 153-158; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 477, 479-480, 490.
104. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at 14; Bögel, supra note 32, at 153-158; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 477, 479-480, 490.
105. The impact of overseas communities has a strong impact on legal and illegal migratory movements, but this issue is beyond the scope of this paper. For more information see, for example, Beare, "Illegal Migration: Personal Tragedies, Social Problems, or National Security Threats?," Trans OrgC 1997, (3, 11), 27; Ghosh, supra note 30, at 62; Houd, supra note 35, at 90.
106. The impact of overseas communities has a strong impact on legal and illegal migratory movements, but this issue is beyond the scope of this paper. For more information see, for example, Beare, "Illegal Migration: Personal Tragedies, Social Problems, or National Security Threats?," Trans OrgC 1997, (3, 11), 27; Ghosh, supra note 30, at 62; Houd, supra note 35, at 90.
107. The impact of overseas communities has a strong impact on legal and illegal migratory movements, but this issue is beyond the scope of this paper. For more information see, for example, Beare, "Illegal Migration: Personal Tragedies, Social Problems, or National Security Threats?," Trans OrgC 1997, (3, 11), 27; Ghosh, supra note 30, at 62; Houd, supra note 35, at 90.
108. Bögel, supra note 32, at 153-158; UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Additional information on measures to combat alien-smuggling, UN Doc E/CN.15/1995/3 para6.
109. Bögel, supra note 32, at 153-158; UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Additional information on measures to combat alien-smuggling, UN Doc E/CN.15/1995/3 para6.
110. Ghosh, supra note 30, at 19; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 479.
111. Ghosh, supra note 30, at 19; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 479.
112. Bögel, supra note 32, at 153-158; UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Additional information on measures to combat alien-smuggling, UN Doc E/CN.15/1995/3 para6.
113. Bögel, supra note 32, at 153-158; UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Additional information on measures to combat alien-smuggling, UN Doc E/CN.15/1995/3 para6.
114. For further reading see, for example, Bolz, supra note 20, at 149; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 75; Wang, "Ocean-Going Smuggling of Illegal Chinese Immigrants," Trans OrgC 1996, (2, 1), 49, 53; Zhang, Gaylord, supra note 34, at 7.
115. For further reading see, for example, Bolz, supra note 20, at 149; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 75; Wang, "Ocean-Going Smuggling of Illegal Chinese Immigrants," Trans OrgC 1996, (2, 1), 49, 53; Zhang, Gaylord, supra note 34, at 7.
116. For further reading see, for example, Bolz, supra note 20, at 149; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 75; Wang, "Ocean-Going Smuggling of Illegal Chinese Immigrants," Trans OrgC 1996, (2, 1), 49, 53; Zhang, Gaylord, supra note 34, at 7.
117. For further reading see, for example, Bolz, supra note 20, at 149; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 75; Wang, "Ocean-Going Smuggling of Illegal Chinese Immigrants," Trans OrgC 1996, (2, 1), 49, 53; Zhang, Gaylord, supra note 34, at 7.
118. Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, supra note 32, at 15-16; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 16; Zhang, Gaylord, supra note 34, at 9.
119. Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, supra note 32, at 15-16; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 16; Zhang, Gaylord, supra note 34, at 9.
120. Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, supra note 32, at 15-16; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 16; Zhang, Gaylord, supra note 34, at 9.
121. Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483; Secretariat of the Budapest Group, supra note 32, at 15-16; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 16; Zhang, Gaylord, supra note 34, at 9.
122. Cf. McAllen, "Non-Immigration Visa Fraud," Vand JTL 1999, (32), 237, 253-260; Sieber, supra note 12, at 75;
123. Cf. McAllen, "Non-Immigration Visa Fraud," Vand JTL 1999, (32), 237, 253-260; Sieber, supra note 12, at 75; Ulrich, Alien Smuggling and Uncontrolled Migration in Northern Europe and the Baltic Region, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1995) 4.
124. Cf. McAllen, "Non-Immigration Visa Fraud," Vand JTL 1999, (32), 237, 253-260; Sieber, supra note 12, at 75; Ulrich, Alien Smuggling and Uncontrolled Migration in Northern Europe and the Baltic Region, (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1995) 4.
125. Cf. Bögel, supra note 32, at 91-99, 185; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 474; Vagg, supra note 24, at 326.
126. Cf. Bögel, supra note 32, at 91-99, 185; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 474; Vagg, supra note 24, at 326.
127. Cf. Bögel, supra note 32, at 91-99, 185; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 474; Vagg, supra note 24, at 326.
128. An expression frequently used to describe international borders without barriers.
129. For further examples see Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Informal note by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Doc A/AC.254/16, 1 June 1999; IOM, "Trafficking in Migrants," supra note 29, at 4; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 11. Beare, supra note 20, at 275; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483.
130. For further examples see Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Informal note by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Doc A/AC.254/16, 1 June 1999; IOM, "Trafficking in Migrants," supra note 29, at 4; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 11. Beare, supra note 20, at 275; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483.
131. For further examples see Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Informal note by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Doc A/AC.254/16, 1 June 1999; IOM, "Trafficking in Migrants," supra note 29, at 4; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 11. Beare, supra note 20, at 275; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483.
132. For further examples see Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Informal note by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Doc A/AC.254/16, 1 June 1999; IOM, "Trafficking in Migrants," supra note 29, at 4; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 11. Beare, supra note 20, at 275; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483.
133. For further examples see Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Informal note by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Doc A/AC.254/16, 1 June 1999; IOM, "Trafficking in Migrants," supra note 29, at 4; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 11. Beare, supra note 20, at 275; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483.
134. McFarlane, Transnational Crime and Illegal Immigration in the Asia-Pacific Region, (Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, 1999) 14; Peck, "Removing the Venom from the Snakehead: Japan's Newest Attempt to Control Chinese Human Smuggling," Vand JTL 1998, (31, 4), 1041, 1048; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483.
135. McFarlane, Transnational Crime and Illegal Immigration in the Asia-Pacific Region, (Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, 1999) 14; Peck, "Removing the Venom from the Snakehead: Japan's Newest Attempt to Control Chinese Human Smuggling," Vand JTL 1998, (31, 4), 1041, 1048; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483.
136. McFarlane, Transnational Crime and Illegal Immigration in the Asia-Pacific Region, (Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, 1999) 14; Peck, "Removing the Venom from the Snakehead: Japan's Newest Attempt to Control Chinese Human Smuggling," Vand JTL 1998, (31, 4), 1041, 1048; Salt, Stein, supra note 34, at 483.
137. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at 14; Peck, supra note 48, at 1048; Skeldon, "East Asian Migration and the Changing World Order," in Gould, Findlay (eds.), Population Migration and the Changing World Order, 189-191 (Chichester: Wiley & Sons, 1994).
138. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at 14; Peck, supra note 48, at 1048; Skeldon, "East Asian Migration and the Changing World Order," in Gould, Findlay (eds.), Population Migration and the Changing World Order, 189-191 (Chichester: Wiley & Sons, 1994).
139. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at 14; Peck, supra note 48, at 1048; Skeldon, "East Asian Migration and the Changing World Order," in Gould, Findlay (eds.), Population Migration and the Changing World Order, 189-191 (Chichester: Wiley & Sons, 1994).
140. Valentin, "Present Issues for Organised Crime Control: The Australian Perspective," UNAFEI Resource Materials Series 1993, 4, 92, 95.
141. See, for example, Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 7; UN General Assembly, Report of the World Ministerial Conference on Organized Transnational Crime. Note by the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/49/748 Annex para32.
142. See, for example, Savona et al., Organized Crime Across the Borders, supra note 11, at 7; UN General Assembly, Report of the World Ministerial Conference on Organized Transnational Crime. Note by the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/49/748 Annex para32.
143. Cf. Bögel, supra note 32, at 128-136; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 120-121; Reuter, The Organisation of Illegal Markets: An Economic Analysis, (Washington: US National Institute of Justice, 1985) 13-14.
144. Cf. Bögel, supra note 32, at 128-136; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 120-121; Reuter, The Organisation of Illegal Markets: An Economic Analysis, (Washington: US National Institute of Justice, 1985) 13-14.
145. Cf. Bögel, supra note 32, at 128-136; Reuter, Disorganized Crime, supra note 9, at 120-121; Reuter, The Organisation of Illegal Markets: An Economic Analysis, (Washington: US National Institute of Justice, 1985) 13-14.
146. For world-wide profit estimates see, for example, Ghosh, supra note 30, at 32; Peck, supra note 48, at 1044; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 75; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 9.
147. For world-wide profit estimates see, for example, Ghosh, supra note 30, at 32; Peck, supra note 48, at 1044; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 75; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 9.
148. For world-wide profit estimates see, for example, Ghosh, supra note 30, at 32; Peck, supra note 48, at 1044; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 75; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 9.
149. For world-wide profit estimates see, for example, Ghosh, supra note 30, at 32; Peck, supra note 48, at 1044; Savona et al., "Dynamics of Migration and Crime in Europe," supra note 30, at 75; Smith, "Chinese Migrant Trafficking," supra note 35, at 9.
150. IOM (1996) 10 Trafficking in Migrants 3.
151. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at 78; Bolz, supra note 20, at 148.
152. Adamoli et al., supra note 11, at 78; Bolz, supra note 20, at 148.
153. Cf. UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Implementation of the Naples Declaration and Global Action Plan against Organized Transnational Crime. Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc E/CN.15/1996/2 paras 17 ff; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 5.
154. Cf. UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Implementation of the Naples Declaration and Global Action Plan against Organized Transnational Crime. Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc E/CN.15/1996/2 paras 17 ff; Williams, Savona, supra note 11, at 5.
155. Southerland, Potter, supra note 12, at 258-259.