The colonial office and the population question in the British empire, 1918-62

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 27, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 55-81

  Ittmann, Karl ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HOUSTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033246956     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086539908583073     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. Social Services- Birth Control-West Indies, 1941-2, Colonial Office papers, Public Record Office, London (hereafter CO) 859/62/16.
2. I will not directly discuss India, which fell under a separate government structure that possessed a great deal of autonomy within the imperial system by the 1930s. However, a number of officials with experience in India played an important role in the discussion of colonial population issues.
3. T.E. Smith (ed.), The Politics of Family Planning in the Third World (London, 1973).
4. For a recent US study see Peter Donaldson, Nature Against Us: The United States and the World Population Crisis 1965-1980 (Chapel Hill, 1990).
5. Annette Ramierez de Arellano and Conrad Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico (Chapel Hill, 1983); Ruth Dixon-Mueller, Population Policy and Women's Rights (West Port, 1993); John Sharpless, 'World Population Growth, Family Planning, and American Foreign Policy', Journal of Policy History, 7, 1 (1995) 72-102; Dennis Hodgson, 'Orthodoxy and Revisionism in American Demography', Population and Development Review, 14, 4 (1988), 541-67.
6. Annette Ramierez de Arellano and Conrad Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico (Chapel Hill, 1983); Ruth Dixon-Mueller, Population Policy and Women's Rights (West Port, 1993); John Sharpless, 'World Population Growth, Family Planning, and American Foreign Policy', Journal of Policy History, 7, 1 (1995) 72-102; Dennis Hodgson, 'Orthodoxy and Revisionism in American Demography', Population and Development Review, 14, 4 (1988), 541-67.
7. Annette Ramierez de Arellano and Conrad Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico (Chapel Hill, 1983); Ruth Dixon-Mueller, Population Policy and Women's Rights (West Port, 1993); John Sharpless, 'World Population Growth, Family Planning, and American Foreign Policy', Journal of Policy History, 7, 1 (1995) 72-102; Dennis Hodgson, 'Orthodoxy and Revisionism in American Demography', Population and Development Review, 14, 4 (1988), 541-67.
8. Annette Ramierez de Arellano and Conrad Seipp, Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico (Chapel Hill, 1983); Ruth Dixon-Mueller, Population Policy and Women's Rights (West Port, 1993); John Sharpless, 'World Population Growth, Family Planning, and American Foreign Policy', Journal of Policy History, 7, 1 (1995) 72-102; Dennis Hodgson, 'Orthodoxy and Revisionism in American Demography', Population and Development Review, 14, 4 (1988), 541-67.
9. R.D. Pearce, The Turning Point in Africa: British Colonial Policy 1938-48 (London, 1982); Penelope Hetherington, British Paternalism and Africa 1920-1940 (London, 1978); Stenhen Constantine, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy 1914-1940 (London, 1984); J.M. Lee and Martin Petter, The Colonial Office, War and Development Policy (London, 1982).
10. R.D. Pearce, The Turning Point in Africa: British Colonial Policy 1938-48 (London, 1982); Penelope Hetherington, British Paternalism and Africa 1920-1940 (London, 1978); Stenhen Constantine, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy 1914-1940 (London, 1984); J.M. Lee and Martin Petter, The Colonial Office, War and Development Policy (London, 1982).
11. R.D. Pearce, The Turning Point in Africa: British Colonial Policy 1938-48 (London, 1982); Penelope Hetherington, British Paternalism and Africa 1920-1940 (London, 1978); Stenhen Constantine, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy 1914-1940 (London, 1984); J.M. Lee and Martin Petter, The Colonial Office, War and Development Policy (London, 1982).
12. R.D. Pearce, The Turning Point in Africa: British Colonial Policy 1938-48 (London, 1982); Penelope Hetherington, British Paternalism and Africa 1920-1940 (London, 1978); Stenhen Constantine, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy 1914-1940 (London, 1984); J.M. Lee and Martin Petter, The Colonial Office, War and Development Policy (London, 1982).
13. John Darwin, Britain and Decolonization (Basingstoke, 1988).
14. There is a rapidly expanding literature on these themes. For a discussion of British eugenics see Daniel Kelves, In the Name of Eugenics (New York, 1985) and Richard Soloway, Demography and Degeneration (Chapel Hill, 1990). See also D.P. Crook, War, Darwinism and History (Cambridge, 1991) and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration (Cambridge, 1989).
15. There is a rapidly expanding literature on these themes. For a discussion of British eugenics see Daniel Kelves, In the Name of Eugenics (New York, 1985) and Richard Soloway, Demography and Degeneration (Chapel Hill, 1990). See also D.P. Crook, War, Darwinism and History (Cambridge, 1991) and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration (Cambridge, 1989).
16. There is a rapidly expanding literature on these themes. For a discussion of British eugenics see Daniel Kelves, In the Name of Eugenics (New York, 1985) and Richard Soloway, Demography and Degeneration (Chapel Hill, 1990). See also D.P. Crook, War, Darwinism and History (Cambridge, 1991) and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration (Cambridge, 1989).
17. There is a rapidly expanding literature on these themes. For a discussion of British eugenics see Daniel Kelves, In the Name of Eugenics (New York, 1985) and Richard Soloway, Demography and Degeneration (Chapel Hill, 1990). See also D.P. Crook, War, Darwinism and History (Cambridge, 1991) and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration (Cambridge, 1989).
18. Charles Drysdale, The Empire and the Birth Rate (London, 1914). See also Anna Davin, 'Imperialism and the Cult of Motherhood', History Workshop Journal, 5 (Spring 1978), 9-65.
19. Charles Drysdale, The Empire and the Birth Rate (London, 1914). See also Anna Davin, 'Imperialism and the Cult of Motherhood', History Workshop Journal, 5 (Spring 1978), 9-65.
20. Soloway, Demography, 138-62.
21. For a discussion of these issues in France see William Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France (Cambridge, 1990).
22. Michael Teitelbaum and Jay Winter, The Fear of Population Decline (San Diego, 1985); Soloway, Demography, 226-58.
23. Michael Teitelbaum and Jay Winter, The Fear of Population Decline (San Diego, 1985); Soloway, Demography, 226-58.
24. J.W. Gregory, The Menace of Colour (London, 1925). See also the American author Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color (New York, 1920).
25. J.W. Gregory, The Menace of Colour (London, 1925). See also the American author Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color (New York, 1920).
26. Warren Thompson, Danger Spots in World Population (New York, 1929).
27. Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism (Cambridge, 1992).
28. Soloway, Demography, 163-92.
29. Chris Langford, The IUSSP (London, 1984).
30. Eugenics Society Papers (hereafter ES), Contemporary Medical Archives Centre (hereafter CMAC), SA/EUG/D.103.
31. Soloway, Demography, 259-311.
32. ES Papers, CMAC, SA/EUG/GC/88/1,2. For a discussion of this issue see Richard Soloway, 'The "Perfect Contraceptive": Eugenics and Birth Control Research in Britain and America in the Interwar Years', Journal of Contemporary History, 30, 4 (1995), 637-64.
33. Ellen Chesler, Margaret Sanger, Woman of Valor (New York, 1992), 235-37, 355-70.
34. ES Papers, CMAC, SA/EUG/GC/88/1,2. Margaret Sanger and Edith How-Martyn, Round the World for Birth Control (London, 1936).
35. Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1937, CO 129/565/5; Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1938, CO/129/571/17; Birth Control-Straits Settlements, 1938, CO 273/645/8.
36. Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1937, CO 129/565/5; Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1938, CO/129/571/17; Birth Control-Straits Settlements, 1938, CO 273/645/8.
37. Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1937, CO 129/565/5; Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1938, CO/129/571/17; Birth Control-Straits Settlements, 1938, CO 273/645/8.
38. Birth Control-Bermuda, 1934, CO 37/282/9 and Birth Control-Bermuda, 1935, CO 37/208/8.
39. Birth Control-Bermuda, 1934, CO 37/282/9 and Birth Control-Bermuda, 1935, CO 37/208/8.
40. John MacNicol, 'The Voluntary Sterilization Campaign in Britain, 1918-1939', Journal of the History of Sexuality, 2, 3 (1992), 422-38.
41. IUSIPP 1928, CO 323/1023/5.
42. Population Problems in the Colonies, 1937, CO 323/1523/2.
43. Birth Control-West Indies, 1941-2, CO 859/62/16.
44. C.M. Langford, The Population Investigation Committee (London, 1988).
45. C.P. Blacker, Eugenics In Prospect and Retrospect (London, 1945), 21-22 and Soloway, Demography, pp.271-74.
46. C.P. Blacker, Eugenics In Prospect and Retrospect (London, 1945), 21-22 and Soloway, Demography, pp.271-74.
47. For example a BBC programme was aired in April 1937 and published under the title The Population Problem: The Experts and the Public (London, 1938).
48. Lee and Petter, Colonial Office, 182-90. Also see Martin Bulmer, 'Mobilizing social knowledge for social welfare: intermediary institutions in the political systems of the United States and Great Britain between the First and Second World Wars', in Paul Weindling (ed.), International Health Organizations and Movements, 1918-1939 (Cambridge, 1995), 305-25.
49. Lee and Petter, Colonial Office, 182-90. Also see Martin Bulmer, 'Mobilizing social knowledge for social welfare: intermediary institutions in the political systems of the United States and Great Britain between the First and Second World Wars', in Paul Weindling (ed.), International Health Organizations and Movements, 1918-1939 (Cambridge, 1995), 305-25.
50. The Colonial Service was divided into eight geographic sections, which were grouped under three Assistant Secretaries of State based in London.
51. Charles Jeffries, Whitehall and the Colonial Service: An Administrative Memoir, 1939-1956 (London, 1972), 9-17 and Charles Jeffries, The Colonial Office (London, 1956), 24-115.
52. Charles Jeffries, Whitehall and the Colonial Service: An Administrative Memoir, 1939-1956 (London, 1972), 9-17 and Charles Jeffries, The Colonial Office (London, 1956), 24-115.
53. See also Barbara Ingram, 'Shaping Opinion on Development Policy: Economists at the Colonial Office during World War II', History of Political Economy, 24, 3 (1992) 689-710.
54. Lee and Petter, Colonial Office, 13-46.
55. Howard Johnson, 'The West Indies and the Conversion of the British Official Classes to the Development Idea', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 15, 1 (1997), 55-83; Constantine, op. cit., 195-266.
56. Howard Johnson, 'The West Indies and the Conversion of the British Official Classes to the Development Idea', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 15, 1 (1997), 55-83; Constantine, op. cit., 195-266.
57. For the Pacific see Donald Denoon et al. (eds.), The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders (London, 1997), 243-49.
58. John Oldham, 'The Population Question in Africa', 1926, typescript in School of Oriental and African Studies, Council of British Missionary Societies Archive, Box 206, African-General. For a semi-official view of the issue of underpopulation see Study Group of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 'The Population Problem', in The Colonial Problem (London, 1939), 127-39.
59. John Oldham, 'The Population Question in Africa', 1926, typescript in School of Oriental and African Studies, Council of British Missionary Societies Archive, Box 206, African-General. For a semi-official view of the issue of underpopulation see Study Group of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 'The Population Problem', in The Colonial Problem (London, 1939), 127-39.
60. 40. For a study of one such programme see Nancy Rose Hunt, '"Le Bebe En Brousse": European Women, African Birth Spacing and Colonial Intervention in Breast-Feeding in the Belgian Congo', International Journal of Historical Studies, 21, 3 (1988), 401-32. For French West Africa, see Myron Echenberg, '"Faire du nègre": Military Aspects of Population Planning in French West Africa, 1920-1940', in Dennis Cordell and Joel Gregory (eds.), African Population and Capitalism (Madison, 1994), 95-108.
61. For a study of one such programme see Nancy Rose Hunt, '"Le Bebe En Brousse": European Women, African Birth Spacing and Colonial Intervention in Breast-Feeding in the Belgian Congo', International Journal of Historical Studies, 21, 3 (1988), 401-32. For French West Africa, see Myron Echenberg, '"Faire du nègre": Military Aspects of Population Planning in French West Africa, 1920-1940', in Dennis Cordell and Joel Gregory (eds.), African Population and Capitalism (Madison, 1994), 95-108.
62. British Social Hygiene Council, Empire and Health, 1, 1 (1926). For a discussion of colonial medicine and venereal disease in Africa see Megan Vaughan, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991), 129-54.
63. British Social Hygiene Council, Empire and Health, 1, 1 (1926). For a discussion of colonial medicine and venereal disease in Africa see Megan Vaughan, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991), 129-54.
64. Native Women and Children-Customs Affecting Fiji and Western Pacific Region, 1930, CO 323/1067/6.
65. Medical Welfare Work Amongst Native Women and Children, 1935, CO 323/1331/11.
66. One official spoke of such practices, as 'inimical to motherhood', Native Women and Children-Customs Affecting Fiji and Western Pacific Region, 1930, CO 323/1067/6.
67. Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1830-1920 (London, 1974); David Northrup, Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1922 (Cambridge, 1995).
68. Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1830-1920 (London, 1974); David Northrup, Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1922 (Cambridge, 1995).
69. See Colin Newbury, 'Labour Migration in the Imperial Phase', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 3, 2 (1975), 234-56.
70. Robert Huttenback, Racism and Empire: White Settlers and Colored Immigrants in the British Self-Governing Colonies 1830-1910 (Ithaca, 1976).
71. Stephen Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire (Manchester, 1990) and Kent Fedorowich, Unfit for Heroes: Reconstruction and Soldier Settlement in the Empire Between the Wars (Manchester, 1995).
72. Stephen Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire (Manchester, 1990) and Kent Fedorowich, Unfit for Heroes: Reconstruction and Soldier Settlement in the Empire Between the Wars (Manchester, 1995).
73. Unemployment in Malaya, 1930, CO 273/566/2; Emigration from India to Malaya, 1939, CO 273/654/1.
74. Unemployment in Malaya, 1930, CO 273/566/2; Emigration from India to Malaya, 1939, CO 273/654/1.
75. Social Science Research-Demography, 1944, CO 927/10/1.
76. This was made clear by Hailey in his African Survey (London, 1938).
77. Population Problems in the Colonies, 1937, 1938, CO 323/1523/1, 2.
78. His earlier work Colonial Populations (London, 1937) sponsored by the Population Investigation Committee made the same argument.
79. Social Service-Census, 1944, CO 859/125/8.
80. In 1935 Lord Fitzalan, head of the Catholic Union of Great Britain, complained about birth control efforts in Hong Kong and the West Indies. Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1938, CO 129/565/5; Birth Control-Bermuda, 1937, CO 37/285/5.
81. In 1935 Lord Fitzalan, head of the Catholic Union of Great Britain, complained about birth control efforts in Hong Kong and the West Indies. Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1938, CO 129/565/5; Birth Control-Bermuda, 1937, CO 37/285/5.
82. Royal Commission on the West Indies-Report and Recommendations-Population, 1940, CO 318/445/5.
83. Rogers emerged as an early advocate for family planning, calling for birth control as early as 1938. Population Control Policy 1961-3, Department of Overseas Development, Public Record Office (hereafter OD) 10/33.
84. Birth Control-Straits Settlements, 1937, CO 273/633/9.
85. Birth Control-West Africa, 1943, CO/859/62/17.
86. For a discussion of this in the debate over post-war migration see Kathleen Paul, Whitewashing Britain: Race and Citizenship in the Post-War Era (Ithaca, 1997), 9-24.
87. In Africa especially South Africa, family planning activists in the inter-war years initially wished to control not the black birth rate, but that of poor whites in order to 'strengthen the race'. ES Papers, CMAC, SA/EUG/E.22
88. Royal Commission Report-Barbados-Population 1940, CO 318/444/35.
89. Ibid.
90. Royal Commission on the West Indies-Report and Recommendations-Population, 1940, CO 318/445/5.
91. One colonial official reported that a doctor in Bermuda claimed to have seen only two or three sixteen-year-old non-while female virgins in his many years of practice. Birth Control-Bermuda, 1935, CO 37/282/9.
92. Birth Control-West Africa, 1943, CO 859/62/17.
93. Royal Commission on the West Indies-Report and Recommendations-Population, 1940, CO 318/445/5.
94. This statement, referring to suspicions about birth control in the West Indies, appeared in a discussion of population issues in Africa. Birth Control-West Africa, 1943, CO 859/62/17.
95. Memo on Emigration of Poor Whites to Dominions, CO 950/906.
96. Emigration Barbados 1938, CO 28/322/4; Surplus Populate Problem-Barbados, 1939, CO 28/325/12; Royal Commission on the West Indies-Report-Population-Barbados 1940, CO 318/444/34; Bermuda-Overpopulation and Emigration, 1943, CO 37/294/17.
97. Emigration Barbados 1938, CO 28/322/4; Surplus Populate Problem-Barbados, 1939, CO 28/325/12; Royal Commission on the West Indies-Report-Population-Barbados 1940, CO 318/444/34; Bermuda-Overpopulation and Emigration, 1943, CO 37/294/17.
98. Emigration Barbados 1938, CO 28/322/4; Surplus Populate Problem-Barbados, 1939, CO 28/325/12; Royal Commission on the West Indies-Report-Population-Barbados 1940, CO 318/444/34; Bermuda-Overpopulation and Emigration, 1943, CO 37/294/17.
99. Emigration Barbados 1938, CO 28/322/4; Surplus Populate Problem-Barbados, 1939, CO 28/325/12; Royal Commission on the West Indies-Report-Population-Barbados 1940, CO 318/444/34; Bermuda-Overpopulation and Emigration, 1943, CO 37/294/17.
100. Family Planning Association Papers, CAMC, Minutes of the International Subcommittee, 3 Feb. 1939.
101. Royal Commission on the West Indies-Report and Recommendations-Population, 1940, CO 318/445/5.
102. Birth Contol-Bermuda, 1935, CO 37/282/9; Birth Control-Bermuda, 1937, CO 37/285/5.
103. Birth Contol-Bermuda, 1935, CO 37/282/9; Birth Control-Bermuda, 1937, CO 37/285/5.
104. Birth Control-Bermuda, 1937, CO 37/285/5.
105. For a similar set of circumstances in Puerto Rico see Ramirez de Arellano and Seipp, Colonialism, 16-56.
106. Edith How-Martyn Papers, London School of Economics Archives, 1/33 Miscellaneous Papers-Birth Control Worldwide Report, October 1939.
107. Population Problems in Jamaica, 1957-59, CO 1031/2783. For more on these issues see Aaron Segal (ed.), Population Policies in the Caribbean (Lexington, MA, 1971).
108. Population Problems in Jamaica, 1957-59, CO 1031/2783. For more on these issues see Aaron Segal (ed.), Population Policies in the Caribbean (Lexington, MA, 1971).
109. Hong Kong Eugenics League, First Annual Report, 1936-37, contained in Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1938, CO 129/565/5; Birth Control-Straits Settlements, 1938, CO 273/645/8.
110. Hong Kong Eugenics League, First Annual Report, 1936-37, contained in Hong Kong Eugenics League, 1938, CO 129/565/5; Birth Control-Straits Settlements, 1938, CO 273/645/8.
111. J.M. Lee, '"Forward Thinking" and War: The Colonial Office during the 1940s', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 6, 1 (1977), 64-79.
112. Lee and Petter, Colonial Office, 164-256.
113. Darwin, Decolonization, 34-166; John Kent, British Imperial Strategy and the Origins of the Cold War 1944-49 (Leicester, 1993); Parma Sarathi Gupta, Imperialism and the British Labour Movement, 1914-1964 (New York, 1975), 303-48; P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Crisis and Deconstruction 1914-1990 (London, 1993), 263-81.
114. Darwin, Decolonization, 34-166; John Kent, British Imperial Strategy and the Origins of the Cold War 1944-49 (Leicester, 1993); Parma Sarathi Gupta, Imperialism and the British Labour Movement, 1914-1964 (New York, 1975), 303-48; P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Crisis and Deconstruction 1914-1990 (London, 1993), 263-81.
115. Darwin, Decolonization, 34-166; John Kent, British Imperial Strategy and the Origins of the Cold War 1944-49 (Leicester, 1993); Parma Sarathi Gupta, Imperialism and the British Labour Movement, 1914-1964 (New York, 1975), 303-48; P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Crisis and Deconstruction 1914-1990 (London, 1993), 263-81.
116. Darwin, Decolonization, 34-166; John Kent, British Imperial Strategy and the Origins of the Cold War 1944-49 (Leicester, 1993); Parma Sarathi Gupta, Imperialism and the British Labour Movement, 1914-1964 (New York, 1975), 303-48; P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Crisis and Deconstruction 1914-1990 (London, 1993), 263-81.
117. The connection was made in discussions of the West Indies after World War II. Population Problems West Indies, 1948, CO 318/495/4. A number of research groups forwarded their concerns about population to the Colonial Economic Development Council. Effect of Increasing Population on Food Supplies, 1948, CO 927/73/2.
118. The connection was made in discussions of the West Indies after World War II. Population Problems West Indies, 1948, CO 318/495/4. A number of research groups forwarded their concerns about population to the Colonial Economic Development Council. Effect of Increasing Population on Food Supplies, 1948, CO 927/73/2.
119. Birth Control-West Africa, 1943, CO 859/62/17; Birth Control-West Indies, 1941-2, CO 859/62/16.
120. Birth Control-West Africa, 1943, CO 859/62/17; Birth Control-West Indies, 1941-2, CO 859/62/16.
121. 84. Papers of the Colonial Social Science Research Council, CRC 194, CSRCC(31); CSSRC 44(8), London School of Economics Archives; Demography-Social Service Research, 1944, CO 927/10/1.
122. Papers of the Colonial Social Science Research Council, CRC 194, CSRCC(31); CSSRC 44(8), London School of Economics Archives; Demography-Social Service Research, 1944, CO 927/10/1.
123. An extended discussion of this occurred between 1944-46. See Colonial Research Council 218, London School of Economics Archives. See also Research-Social Services-Demography and Census, 1946, CO 927/10/3.
124. Michael Worboys, 'The discovery of colonial malnutrition between the wars', in David Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, 1988), 208-25.
125. Effect of Increasing Population on Food Supplies, 1948, CO 927/73/2.
126. File on Warning from the West Indies by WM Macmillan, 1936, CO 318/422/9. Both Johnson and Constantine see Stockdale as an advocate for smallholdings, but his comments about the inability of peasants to cultivate their plots without constant supervision seems to contradict such assertions.
127. For a discussion of these issues in East Africa before the Second World War see David Anderson, 'Depression, Dust Bowl, Demography and Drought: The Colonial State and Soil Conservation in East Africa During the 1930s', African Affairs, 83 (1984), 321-41.
128. Birth Control-West Africa, 1943, CO 859/62/17.
129. CSSRC Minutes and Papers, 1944, Appendix B, CO 901/1; Colonial Advisory Council on Agriculture, Animal Health and Forestry, Papers, 1948, CO 996/7.
130. As early as 1945, European political representatives in East Africa raised the issue of African population increase. Memo on Colonial Medical Policy 1945-8, CO 859/155/1. It was also discussed in the report of the East African Commission in the 1950s. East Africa Commission Section A Population, CO 892/3/10. See also Lord Hailey, An African Survey, revised 2nd edition (London, 1957), 115-31.
131. As early as 1945, European political representatives in East Africa raised the issue of African population increase. Memo on Colonial Medical Policy 1945-8, CO 859/155/1. It was also discussed in the report of the East African Commission in the 1950s. East Africa Commission Section A Population, CO 892/3/10. See also Lord Hailey, An African Survey, revised 2nd edition (London, 1957), 115-31.
132. As early as 1945, European political representatives in East Africa raised the issue of African population increase. Memo on Colonial Medical Policy 1945-8, CO 859/155/1. It was also discussed in the report of the East African Commission in the 1950s. East Africa Commission Section A Population, CO 892/3/10. See also Lord Hailey, An African Survey, revised 2nd edition (London, 1957), 115-31.
133. Social Service-Medical-Population, 1948, CO 859/154/6.
134. Social Service-Maternity and Child Welfare Women's Services in the Colonies by Dr Mary Blacklock, 1942-3, CO 859/7/11; Social Service-Medical-Co-ordination of Medical Activities in the Colonies, 1942-3, CO 859/65/8.
135. Social Service-Maternity and Child Welfare Women's Services in the Colonies by Dr Mary Blacklock, 1942-3, CO 859/7/11; Social Service-Medical-Co-ordination of Medical Activities in the Colonies, 1942-3, CO 859/65/8.
136. Demography-Social Service Research, 1945, CO 927/10.
137. Social Service-Medical-Colonial Medical Advisory Council, 1948, CO 859/154/6.
138. Advisory Council on Scientific Policy (hereafter ACSP): Colonial Population Problems, 1954-56, CO 859/666.
139. Foreign Office Papers, Public Record Office (hereafter FO) For Germany 371/34461, 34662, 34662, 1943. For Japan, FO 371/54087 1946. For Italy, FO 371/73151, 69153, 1948, FO 371/79534, 1949.
140. The Effect of Raising The Standard of Living on the Birth Rate and Increase in Population in the Middle East and Tropical Africa, 1948, CO 927/73.
141. World Food Supplies-Strategic Aspects of World Food Production, 1949, CO 537/4472.
142. Comment on Sir Alan Pim's Memo by Hailey, 1942, CO 323/1845/7.
143. Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 25-63.
144. Overseas Settlement in the Dominions 1945-7, Memo on Shipping Migrants to Australia, Ministry of Labour Papers, Public Record Office, LAB 199/13. See also Implication of Dispersal of Population and Industry Throughout the Commonwealth, 1948, CO 537/2667.
145. Overseas Settlement in the Dominions 1945-7, Memo on Shipping Migrants to Australia, Ministry of Labour Papers, Public Record Office, LAB 199/13. See also Implication of Dispersal of Population and Industry Throughout the Commonwealth, 1948, CO 537/2667.
146. Memo on the Problem of Chinese Immigration, 1948, CO 537/4871.
147. Diana Kay and Robert Miles, Refugees or Migrant Workers? European Volunteer Workers in Britain 1946-1951 (London, 1992).
148. For a discussion of this issue see Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 111-30.
149. Minutes of the Working Party on Employment of Surplus Colonial Population in the United Kingdom, 1949, CO 859/151/4.
150. Welfare of Colonials in the United Kingdom, 1948, CO 537/2583.
151. Population Problems-West Indies, 1948, CO 318/495/4; Population Problems-West Indies, 1949, CO 318/495/5; Population Problems-West Indies, 1951, CO 318/511/9.
152. Population Problems-West Indies, 1948, CO 318/495/4; Population Problems-West Indies, 1949, CO 318/495/5; Population Problems-West Indies, 1951, CO 318/511/9.
153. Population Problems-West Indies, 1948, CO 318/495/4; Population Problems-West Indies, 1949, CO 318/495/5; Population Problems-West Indies, 1951, CO 318/511/9.
154. This concern was voiced by the CSSRC as well. CSSRC Minutes and Papers, 1946, CO 901/3; Second Conference on Colonial Government Statistics, 1953, CO 1034/10.
155. This concern was voiced by the CSSRC as well. CSSRC Minutes and Papers, 1946, CO 901/3; Second Conference on Colonial Government Statistics, 1953, CO 1034/10.
156. Indians in East Africa, 1946, CO 822 115/13; Immigration-Non-Native-Control Of, 1945-6, CO 822/118/2 ; Immigration Legislation-East Africa, 1950, CO 537/ 5910; Asian Immigration into East Africa, 1951-4, CO 822/581.
157. Indians in East Africa, 1946, CO 822 115/13; Immigration-Non-Native-Control Of, 1945-6, CO 822/118/2 ; Immigration Legislation-East Africa, 1950, CO 537/ 5910; Asian Immigration into East Africa, 1951-4, CO 822/581.
158. Indians in East Africa, 1946, CO 822 115/13; Immigration-Non-Native-Control Of, 1945-6, CO 822/118/2 ; Immigration Legislation-East Africa, 1950, CO 537/ 5910; Asian Immigration into East Africa, 1951-4, CO 822/581.
159. Indians in East Africa, 1946, CO 822 115/13; Immigration-Non-Native-Control Of, 1945-6, CO 822/118/2 ; Immigration Legislation-East Africa, 1950, CO 537/ 5910; Asian Immigration into East Africa, 1951-4, CO 822/581.
160. Use of Quota Systems to Control Immigration, 1954-6, CO 1032/123. For an overview see Ian Spencer, British Immigration Policy Since 1939 (New York, 1997). Also see Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 131-69.
161. Use of Quota Systems to Control Immigration, 1954-6, CO 1032/123. For an overview see Ian Spencer, British Immigration Policy Since 1939 (New York, 1997). Also see Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 131-69.
162. Use of Quota Systems to Control Immigration, 1954-6, CO 1032/123. For an overview see Ian Spencer, British Immigration Policy Since 1939 (New York, 1997). Also see Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 131-69.
163. Dennis Hodgson, 'Demography as Social Science and Policy Science', Population and Development Review, 9, 1 (1983), 1-33.
164. ACSP: Colonial Population Policy, 1954-6, Note by Solly Zuckerman, 2 April 1954, CO 859/666.
165. Confidential Note of Meeting of ACSP, 25 Jan. 1956, ibid.
166. Population Problems-West Indies, 1951, CO 318/511/9.
167. David Goldsworthy, 'Britain and the International Critics of British Colonialism, 1951-56' Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 19, 1 (1991), 1-24.
168. ACSP: Population Control Policy, 1960-62, CO 859/1444.
169. Langford, PIC, 10-16, and Soloway, Demography, 337-39.
170. Langford, PIC, 10-16, and Soloway, Demography, 337-39.
171. Soloway, Demography, 336-62.
172. Family Planning Association Papers, CAMC, SA/FPA A/13/18.
173. Population Control Policy, 1957-9, CO 859-1028.
174. Population-General Information and Enquiries, 1957-9, CO 859/1026.
175. ACSP: Colonial Population Problems, 1954-6, CO 859-666 and Population Control Policy, 1957-9, CO 859-1028.
176. ACSP: Colonial Population Problems, 1954-6, CO 859-666 and Population Control Policy, 1957-9, CO 859-1028.
177. Social Service-Coordination of Medical Activities in the Colonies, 1944, CO 859/110/1; Population Problems in Jamaica, 1957-9, CO 1031/2783; Ford Foundation, 1952, CO 859/339.
178. Social Service-Coordination of Medical Activities in the Colonies, 1944, CO 859/110/1; Population Problems in Jamaica, 1957-9, CO 1031/2783; Ford Foundation, 1952, CO 859/339.
179. ACSP: Colonial Population Problems, 1954-56, Minutes of ACSP Meeting 1 Feb. 1956, CO 859/666.
180. Demography and Census-UNESCO-Population Commission, 1946-8, CO 927/72/1-4. For a discussion of British Attitudes to the UN see Goldsworthy, 'International Critics', 6-7.
181. For more on the United Nations population work in this era see Richard Symonds and Michael Carder, The United Nations and the Population Question 1945-1970 (New York, 1973), 40-88.
182. Dept of Technical Co-operation-Population Control Policy, 1961-3, Part A, OD 10/32.
183. Dept of Technical Cooperation-Population Control Policy, 1961-3 Part B, OD 10/33.
184. Scheme for development of demographic data in East Africa, 1954-6, CO 927-374.
185. Dept of Technical Cooperation-Population Control Policy, 1964-6, OD 10/143.