Hispano education and the implications of autonomy: Four school systems in Southern Colorado, 1920-1963

Harvard Educational Review

Volumn 69, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 117-149

  Donato, Ruben ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033245324     PISSN: 00178055     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.17763/haer.69.2.j17hj5p37j4512h7     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. M. Olneck and M. Lazerson, "The School Achievement of Immigrant Children: 1900-1930," in The Social History of American Education, ed. E. McClellan and W. Reese (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), pp. 257-286.
2. J. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); D. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
3. J. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); D. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
4. L. H. Gann and P. J. Duignan, The Hispanics in the United States: A History (Boulder, CO: Wesrview Press, 1986); K. Meier and J. Stewart, The Politics of Hispanic Education: Un Paso Pa'lante y Dos Pa'tras (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992); S. Nieto, "Fact and Fiction: Stories of Puerto Ricans in U.S. Schools," Harvard Educational Review, 68 (1998), 133-163; C. Walsh, " 'Staging Encounters': The Educational Decline of U.S. Puerto Ricans in [Post]-Colonial Perspective," Harvard Educational Review, 68 (1998), 218-243.
5. L. H. Gann and P. J. Duignan, The Hispanics in the United States: A History (Boulder, CO: Wesrview Press, 1986); K. Meier and J. Stewart, The Politics of Hispanic Education: Un Paso Pa'lante y Dos Pa'tras (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992); S. Nieto, "Fact and Fiction: Stories of Puerto Ricans in U.S. Schools," Harvard Educational Review, 68 (1998), 133-163; C. Walsh, " 'Staging Encounters': The Educational Decline of U.S. Puerto Ricans in [Post]-Colonial Perspective," Harvard Educational Review, 68 (1998), 218-243.
6. L. H. Gann and P. J. Duignan, The Hispanics in the United States: A History (Boulder, CO: Wesrview Press, 1986); K. Meier and J. Stewart, The Politics of Hispanic Education: Un Paso Pa'lante y Dos Pa'tras (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992); S. Nieto, "Fact and Fiction: Stories of Puerto Ricans in U.S. Schools," Harvard Educational Review, 68 (1998), 133-163; C. Walsh, " 'Staging Encounters': The Educational Decline of U.S. Puerto Ricans in [Post]-Colonial Perspective," Harvard Educational Review, 68 (1998), 218-243.
7. L. H. Gann and P. J. Duignan, The Hispanics in the United States: A History (Boulder, CO: Wesrview Press, 1986); K. Meier and J. Stewart, The Politics of Hispanic Education: Un Paso Pa'lante y Dos Pa'tras (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992); S. Nieto, "Fact and Fiction: Stories of Puerto Ricans in U.S. Schools," Harvard Educational Review, 68 (1998), 133-163; C. Walsh, " 'Staging Encounters': The Educational Decline of U.S. Puerto Ricans in [Post]-Colonial Perspective," Harvard Educational Review, 68 (1998), 218-243.
8. S. Oboler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives: Latino Identity and the Politics of (Re)presentation in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), p. 25.
9. R. Acuña, Occupied America: The Chicano's Struggle Toward Liberation (New York: Canfield, 1972); E. Stocldard, Mexican Americans (New York: Random House, 1973).
10. R. Acuña, Occupied America: The Chicano's Struggle Toward Liberation (New York: Canfield, 1972); E. Stoddard, Mexican Americans (New York: Random House, 1973).
11. Individuals interviewed were purposefully selected. I located some from high school graduation lists in local newspapers, from high school and college yearbooks, from local educators, from master's theses, and from other school records. For example, I found ̃Spanish American classroom̃ rosters from the mid-1930s in one school district. With this information, I looked through the local telephone directory to see if these individuals were still living in the community. Contacting one individual from a class roster led me to other Hispanos.
12. Tape-recorded interviews lasted from one to two hours. I explained my interest in the history of Hispano education in southern Colorado and informed them that I was going to publish this work. All interviewees gave me permission to use their names, except for certain individuals in Monte Vista.
13. Stoddard, Mexican Americans.
14. Consider the order of time: Spain colonized the area in the seventeenth century, Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, and the New Mexico-Colorado region became an "American" territory in 1848. Acuña, Occupied America; R. Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest: The Sacred Right of Self-Preservation (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981).
15. Consider the order of time: Spain colonized the area in the seventeenth century, Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, and the New Mexico-Colorado region became an "American" territory in 1848. Acuña, Occupied America; R. Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest: The Sacred Right of Self-Preservation (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981).
16. R. McLean and C. Thomson, Spanish and Mexican in Colorado: A Survey of the Spanish Americans and Mexicans in the State of Colorado (New York: Board of National Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., Department of City, Immigrant, and Industrial Work, 1924), p. 13.
17. Stoddard, Mexican Americans.
18. Stoddard, Mexican Americans, p. 10.
19. V. M. Simmons, The San Luis Valley: Land of the Six-Armed Cross (Boulder, CO: Pruett, 1979).
20. J. P. Hanna, "Reading, 'Riting and 'Rithmatic in Early Rural Schools of Del Norte," 'San Luis Valley Historian, 17, No. 2 (1985), 1-29.
21. R. Buhrmeister, "A History of the Spanish-Speaking People in Southern Colorado, Especially Those in Otero County," Unpublished masters thesis, Western State College of Colorado, 1935; McLean and Thomson, Spanish and Mexican in Colorado.
22. R. Buhrmeister, "A History of the Spanish-Speaking People in Southern Colorado, Especially Those in Otero County," Unpublished masters thesis, Western State College of Colorado, 1935; McLean and Thomson, Spanish and Mexican in Colorado.
23. Stoddard, Mexican Americans.
24. Stoddard, Mexican Americans, p. 14.
25. C. E. Zeigler, "The Problem of Educating the Spanish-American Child in the Public Schools," Unpublished master's thesis, Colorado College, 1942, p. 26.
26. Zeigler, "The Problem of Educating."
27. W. W. Bundy, "The Mexican Minority Problem in Otero County," Unpublished master's thesis, University of Colorado at Boulder, 1940, p. 62.
28. Bundy, "The Mexican Minority Problem," pp. 31-32.
29. Trinidad School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1920-1955, School District Administration Building; Del Norte School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1925, 1950, 1955, Del Norte High School Archive Room; Monte Vista School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1925, 1950, School District Administration Building.
30. Monte Vista High School Yearbook, Silver and Gold, 1920, 1923, Monte Vista High School Library; Monte Vista High School Yearbook, The Pirateer, 1955, Monte Vista High School Library.
31. Monte Vista High School Yearbook, Silver and Gold, 1920, 1923, Monte Vista High School Library; Monte Vista High School Yearbook, The Pirateer, 1955, Monte Vista High School Library.
32. Trinidad High School Yearbook, The Piñon, 1913, 1963, Trinidad High School Library.
33. Del Norte High School Yearbook, El Rio, 1948, Del Norte School District Administration Building.
34. Trinidad High School, The Piñon, 1925; "Junior Class Reception to Open Week of Graduation," [Trinidad] Chronicle-News, June 3, 1920; " THS Class of 115 to Receive Diplomas at Graduation Exercises Monday Night," Chronicle-News, May 27, 1955; "Program for High School School Commencement," [Del Norte] San Juan Prospector, April 30, 1925; Del Norte High School, El Rio, 1955; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1955, 1960; "Large Graduating Class," Monte Vista Journal, May 15, 1920, p. 1.
35. Trinidad High School, The Piñon, 1925; "Junior Class Reception to Open Week of Graduation," [Trinidad] Chronicle-News, June 3, 1920; " THS Class of 115 to Receive Diplomas at Graduation Exercises Monday Night," Chronicle-News, May 27, 1955; "Program for High School School Commencement," [Del Norte] San Juan Prospector, April 30, 1925; Del Norte High School, El Rio, 1955; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1955, 1960; "Large Graduating Class," Monte Vista Journal, May 15, 1920, p. 1.
36. Trinidad High School, The Piñon, 1925; "Junior Class Reception to Open Week of Graduation," [Trinidad] Chronicle-News, June 3, 1920; " THS Class of 115 to Receive Diplomas at Graduation Exercises Monday Night," Chronicle-News, May 27, 1955; "Program for High School School Commencement," [Del Norte] San Juan Prospector, April 30, 1925; Del Norte High School, El Rio, 1955; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1955, 1960; "Large Graduating Class," Monte Vista Journal, May 15, 1920, p. 1.
37. Trinidad High School, The Piñon, 1925; "Junior Class Reception to Open Week of Graduation," [Trinidad] Chronicle-News, June 3, 1920; " THS Class of 115 to Receive Diplomas at Graduation Exercises Monday Night," Chronicle-News, May 27, 1955; "Program for High School School Commencement," [Del Norte] San Juan Prospector, April 30, 1925; Del Norte High School, El Rio, 1955; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1955, 1960; "Large Graduating Class," Monte Vista Journal, May 15, 1920, p. 1.
38. Trinidad High School, The Piñon, 1925; "Junior Class Reception to Open Week of Graduation," [Trinidad] Chronicle-News, June 3, 1920; " THS Class of 115 to Receive Diplomas at Graduation Exercises Monday Night," Chronicle-News, May 27, 1955; "Program for High School School Commencement," [Del Norte] San Juan Prospector, April 30, 1925; Del Norte High School, El Rio, 1955; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1955, 1960; "Large Graduating Class," Monte Vista Journal, May 15, 1920, p. 1.
39. Trinidad High School, The Piñon, 1925; "Junior Class Reception to Open Week of Graduation," [Trinidad] Chronicle-News, June 3, 1920; " THS Class of 115 to Receive Diplomas at Graduation Exercises Monday Night," Chronicle-News, May 27, 1955; "Program for High School School Commencement," [Del Norte] San Juan Prospector, April 30, 1925; Del Norte High School, El Rio, 1955; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1955, 1960; "Large Graduating Class," Monte Vista Journal, May 15, 1920, p. 1.
40. Trinidad High School, The Piñon, 1925; "Junior Class Reception to Open Week of Graduation," [Trinidad] Chronicle-News, June 3, 1920; " THS Class of 115 to Receive Diplomas at Graduation Exercises Monday Night," Chronicle-News, May 27, 1955; "Program for High School School Commencement," [Del Norte] San Juan Prospector, April 30, 1925; Del Norte High School, El Rio, 1955; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1955, 1960; "Large Graduating Class," Monte Vista Journal, May 15, 1920, p. 1.
41. E. H. Aherns, "A Socioeconomic Study of a Spanish-American Barrio in Monte Vista, Colorado," Unpublished master's thesis, Adams State College, 1968, p. 1.
42. Aherns, "A Socioeconomic Study," pp. 94-96.
43. Aherns, "A Socioeconomic Study," p. 96.
44. Aherns, "A Socioeconomic Study," p. 95.
45. Monte Vista School District, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," September 16, 1940, School District Administration Building.
46. Monte Vista School District, "Spanish American Classroom Roster," 1934-1935, 1935-1936 (grades unknown), 1937-1938 (1C/pre-first grade), 1941-1942, 1943-1944, 1945-1946 (pre-first grade), 1943-1944 (first grade, Marsh Elementary), Unpublished raw data, author's private collection.
47. Monte Vista School District, Marsh Elementary classes, 1942-1943, 1945-1946, Unpublished raw data, author's private collection.
48. G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press, 1990); T. H. Manuel, The Education of Spanish-Speaking Children in Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1930); G. Sanchez, Concerning Segregation of Spanish-Speaking Children in the Public Schools, Inter-American Education Occasional Paper, No. 9 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1951); G. San Miguel, Jr., "Let All of Them Take Heed": Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equity in Texas, 1910-1981 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987).
49. G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press, 1990); T. H. Manuel, The Education of Spanish-Speaking Children in Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1930); G. Sanchez, Concerning Segregation of Spanish-Speaking Children in the Public Schools, Inter-American Education Occasional Paper, No. 9 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1951); G. San Miguel, Jr., "Let All of Them Take Heed": Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equity in Texas, 1910-1981 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987).
50. G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press, 1990); T. H. Manuel, The Education of Spanish-Speaking Children in Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1930); G. Sanchez, Concerning Segregation of Spanish-Speaking Children in the Public Schools, Inter-American Education Occasional Paper, No. 9 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1951); G. San Miguel, Jr., "Let All of Them Take Heed": Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equity in Texas, 1910-1981 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987).
51. G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press, 1990); T. H. Manuel, The Education of Spanish-Speaking Children in Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1930); G. Sanchez, Concerning Segregation of Spanish-Speaking Children in the Public Schools, Inter-American Education Occasional Paper, No. 9 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1951); G. San Miguel, Jr., "Let All of Them Take Heed": Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equity in Texas, 1910-1981 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987).
52. Monte Vista School District, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," May 8, 1940, School District Administration Building.
53. Monte Vista School District, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," December 11, 1940, p. 2, School District Administration Building.
54. Monte Vista School District, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," March 8, 1944, p. 2, School District Administration Building.
55. Monte Vista School District, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," March 8, 1944, p. 2, School District Administration Building.
56. School segregation was important in the primary grades; in fact, it began in the district's kindergarten classes. In one academic year, for example, several Anglo families moved from Monte Vista, creating some kindergarten vacancies. School administrators made certain "Anglo" slots in the program would "not be [filled] until an effort has been made to secure Anglo American children." Monte Vista School District, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," January 16, 1941, p. 3, School District Administration Building.
57. C. Brumfield, "A Case Study of Intergroup Relations of a Colorado Community, in Final Report 1946-1949: On Intergroup Relations (Greeley: Colorado State College of Education, 1949), p. 72.
58. Monte Vista High School, Silver and Gold, 1923; Monte Vista School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1925, 1950, School District Administration Building; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1950.
59. Monte Vista High School, Silver and Gold, 1923; Monte Vista School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1925, 1950, School District Administration Building; Monte Vista High School, The Pirateer, 1950.
60. Monte Vista School District, "School Board Minutes," May 9, 1951, School District Administration Building.
61. In 1951, the Monte Vista School District considered the possibility of employing a Hispano teacher. "[Amos] Mascarenas, a Spanish American graduate of [New Mexico] Highlands University is doing his practice teaching in Monte Vista schools. He is now working with a group of Spanish I students in the high school and with Mrs. Ferguson's remedial room at Central High School." The report maintained that Mascarenas "would do a good job with Spanish American children . . . if and when an opening may occur. Monte Vista School District, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," May 17, 1951, School District Administration Building. There is no evidence Mascarenas was hired.
62. Trinidad School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1920, School District Administration Building.
63. Trinidad School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1925, School District Administration Building.
64. "T.N.T. to Play Spanish-American," Chronicle-News, September 24, 1921.
65. "Primary Election Notice of Trinidad," Chronicle-News, February 24, 1921.
66. Trinidad School District, "School Board Minutes," April 28, 1925, p. 298, School District Administration Building.
67. Trinidad School District, "School Board Minutes," April 12, 1945, p. 495, School District Administration Building.
68. Trinidad High School, The Piñon, 1963.
69. Established in 1925, TSJC was a traditional community college. It had a vocational focus with a small teacher education program.
70. H. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1883-1958 (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986) ; E. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964); J. Spring, The American School, 1642-1990 (New York: Longman, 1990).
71. H. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1883-1958 (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986) ; E. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964); J. Spring, The American School, 1642-1990 (New York: Longman, 1990).
72. H. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1883-1958 (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986) ; E. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964); J. Spring, The American School, 1642-1990 (New York: Longman, 1990).
73. Trinidad High School, "Commencement Program," 1925, 1930, High School Library.
74. R. B. Mertz, Trinidad High School, "Class of 1940: 84 Senior Boys and 108 Senior Girls," Unpublished raw data, 1940.
75. While not shown in Table 2, there were a significant number of females, both Hispanas and Whites, in the commercial tracks This was consistent with what was occurring nationally in public high schools, where young women were being trained to be secretaries, office assistants, and for other "pink-collar" jobs.
76. Simmons, The San Luis Valley, p. 153.
77. E. Borrego, "Some Educational Aspects Affecting Acculturation of Spanish-Culture Background Students in the San Luis Valley," Unpublished master's thesis, Adams State College, 1946, p. 16.
78. E. Borrego, "Some Educational Aspects," p. 17.
79. The origin of the term Chacla is unknown.
80. Del Norte High School, El Rio, 1949, 1964.
81. E. Borrego, "Some Educational Aspects."
82. "Primary Election Notice to the Electors of Costilla County," Costilla County Free Press, September 3, 1954.
83. T. Borrego, "Suggested School District Reorganization in Costilla County," Unpublished master's thesis, Adams State College, 1947.
84. Among these communities, Los Fuertes was organized in 1853; San Pablo in 1854; San Luis, Garcia, and Old San Acacio in 1856; Chama in 1860; Mesita in 1909; and New San Acacio and Jaroso in 1910. S. Jaramillo, "Organization, Establishment and Accreditation of Centennial Union High School," Unpublished master's thesis, Adams State College, 1955.
85. A. Nash, "A Community School for Los Fuertes," Unpublished master's thesis, Adams State College, 1949.
86. "Costilla County Teachers for 1927-1928," El Democrata del Condado de Costilla, October 8, 1927.
87. San Luis School District, "Teachers' Register," 1920-1939, Centennial High School Library Archive Room.
88. T. Borrego, "Suggested School District Reorganization," p. 53.
89. E. Borrego, "Some Educational Aspects"; Jaramillo, "Organization, Establishment and Accreditation."
90. E. Borrego, "Some Educational Aspects"; Jaramillo, "Organization, Establishment and Accreditation."
91. E. Borrego, "Some Educational Aspects."
92. Our Lady of Mercy High School Yearbooks, Mercy High Pictorial, 1945, 1948; The Mercedian, 1954, 1956, San Luis, CO; author's personal collection.
93. Our Lady of Mercy High School Yearbooks, Mercy High Pictorial, 1945, 1948; The Mercedian, 1954, 1956, San Luis, CO; author's personal collection.
94. Adams State College Newspaper, South Coloradan, n.d., author's private collection.
95. Adams State College, "College Bulletin," 1951-1952, Neilsen Library, Alamosa, CO; South Coloradan, 3, No. 6 (March 1945).
96. Adams State College, "College Bulletin," 1951-1952, Neilsen Library, Alamosa, CO; South Coloradan, 3, No. 6 (March 1945).
97. South Coloradan, n.d.
98. Jaramillo, "Organization, Establishment and Accreditation."
99. Tyack, The One Best System.
100. G. R. Anrig, "Sociological Factors Which Resist School Consolidation," Clearing House, 38 (1963), 162.
101. A. H. Moehlman, "Social Change and District Reorganization," Phi Delta Kappan, 32 (1950-1951), 301-302; J. F. Thaden, "Compatibility of Educational and Sociological Criteria in Formation of Community School Districts," Rural Sociology, 17 (1952), 172-175.
102. A. H. Moehlman, "Social Change and District Reorganization," Phi Delta Kappan, 32 (1950-1951), 301-302; J. F. Thaden, "Compatibility of Educational and Sociological Criteria in Formation of Community School Districts," Rural Sociology, 17 (1952), 172-175.
103. C. Peccolo, "District Reorganization as Related to Transportation in the San Luis Valley," Unpublished master's thesis, Adams State College, 1949, pp. 4-5.
104. T. Borrego, "Suggested School District Reorganization," p. 8.
105. Jaramillo, "Organization, Establishment and Accreditation."
106. San Luis School District, "Record of District Meeting," August 17, 1953, Centennial High School District Library Archive Room, San Luis, CO.
107. One of the resources was the San Luis Institute. San Luis residents recognized that the building was needed to establish a public high school. This meant that the Institute had to close.
108. Jaramillo, "Organization, Establishment and Accreditation."
109. Centennial Union High School Yearbook, The Rambler, 1960, High School Library, San Luis, CO.
110. Centennial Union High School Yearbook, The Rambler, 1961, High School Library, San Luis, CO.
111. Jaramillo, "Organization, Establishment and Accreditation."
112. Centennial Union High School, The Rambler, 1961-1962.
113. "Honor Roll, Centennial Union High School," Costilla County Free Press, March 17, 1961, p. 1.
114. In 1925, there were 17 Hispanos out of a total enrollment of 102; in 1935, 42 out of 204; in 1946, 38 out of 169; in 1955, 70 out 257; and, in 1964, 122 out of 1,013. Adams State College Yearbook, El Conquistador, 1935, 1946, 1955, 1964, Neilsen Library, Archive Room, Alamosa, CO. The 1925 figure was taken from the Adams State first summer class photograph, Adams State College, Neilsen Library, Archive Room, Alamosa, CO.
115. Adams State College, El Conquistador, 1930-1946.
116. Monte Vista School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1950, School District Administration Building; Del Norte School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1950, Del Norte High School Archive Room; Trinidad School District, "Census List for School-Age Children Between Six and Twenty-One," 1950, School District Administration Building.
117. C. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1983).
118. M. Katz, Class, Bureaucracy, and Schools: The Illusion of Educational Change in America (New York: Praeger, 1971).
119. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, p. 223
120. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic; W. Reese, The Origins of the American High School (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995); Spring, The American School; Tyack, The One Best System.
121. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic; W. Reese, The Origins of the American High School (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995); Spring, The American School; Tyack, The One Best System.
122. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic; W. Reese, The Origins of the American High School (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995); Spring, The American School; Tyack, The One Best System.
123. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic; W. Reese, The Origins of the American High School (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995); Spring, The American School; Tyack, The One Best System.