Roosevelt, mayors and the new deal regime: The origins of intergovernmental lobbying and administration

Polity

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 415-450

  Flanagan, Richard M ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033241152     PISSN: 00323497     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3235248     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. 1. Sidney Fine, Frank Murphy: The Detroit Years (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975), 341.
2. 2. Paul Betters, "Introduction," City Problems of 1933: The Annual Proceedings of the USCM, ed. Paul Betters (Chicago: USCM, 1933), np.
3. 3. John Gunther, Federal-City Relations in the United States (Newark, DE: University of Deleware Press, 1990), 24.
4. 4. Steven Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from John Adams to George Bush (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 490.
5. 5. Richard Hofstadter, The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), xxxvi, 431.
6. 6. James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1954), 474.
7. 7. Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1991), 263, 283.
8. 8. Theodore Lowi, The End of Liberalism: The Second Republic of the United States (New York: Norton, 1979).
9. 9. Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 5.
10. 10. Sidney Milkis, The Presidency and the Party System (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
11. 11. Kenneth Finegold and Theda Skocpol, State and Party in America's New Deal (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995); Jordan Schwartz, The New Dealers: Power Politics in the Age of Roosevelt (New York: Vintage Books, 1993).
12. 11. Kenneth Finegold and Theda Skocpol, State and Party in America's New Deal (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995); Jordan Schwartz, The New Dealers: Power Politics in the Age of Roosevelt (New York: Vintage Books, 1993).
13. 12. Barry Karl, "Constitution and Central Planning: The Third New Deal Revisted," The Supreme Court Review (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1990); Bonnie Fox Schwartz, The Civil Works Administration: The Business of Emergency Works Relief (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
14. 12. Barry Karl, "Constitution and Central Planning: The Third New Deal Revisted," The Supreme Court Review (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1990); Bonnie Fox Schwartz, The Civil Works Administration: The Business of Emergency Works Relief (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
15. 13. Lyle W. Dorsett, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the City Bosses (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1977), 114.
16. 14. Samuel Beer, "The Modernization of American Federalism," Publius: The Journal of Federalism. Vol. 3, ed. Daniel J. Elazar (Fall 1973): 54.
17. 15. On the influence of the USCM before the late 1960s, see: Richard Flanagan, "The Housing Act of 1954: The Sea-Change in National Urban Policy," Urban Affairs Review 33 (November 1997); Gunther, Federal-City Relations in the United States; Susan Farkas, Urban Lobbying (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972).
18. 15. On the influence of the USCM before the late 1960s, see: Richard Flanagan, "The Housing Act of 1954: The Sea-Change in National Urban Policy," Urban Affairs Review 33 (November 1997); Gunther, Federal-City Relations in the United States; Susan Farkas, Urban Lobbying (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972).
19. 15. On the influence of the USCM before the late 1960s, see: Richard Flanagan, "The Housing Act of 1954: The Sea-Change in National Urban Policy," Urban Affairs Review 33 (November 1997); Gunther, Federal-City Relations in the United States; Susan Farkas, Urban Lobbying (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972).
20. 16. In the early 1930s the cities were concerned mostly with the issue of municipal finance. By the late 1930s, as a USCM memo to President Roosevelt noted: "The cities are deeply interested and concerned with regard to three major matters: WPA, Housing and PWA." "Memorandum from the USCM to FDR," March 30, 1937, Harry Hopkins Papers, General Correspondence, 1933-1940, Group 24, Container 92. FDR Library, Hyde Park, NY.
21. 17. Hearings Before the Senate Committee on Judiciary, "Amendment of Bankruptcy Laws - Bankruptcy of Municipalities," January 24, 1934, 12.
22. 18. Hearings Before the Senate Committee on Banking and Currency, "Relief to Municipalities," May 3, 1933, 15.
23. 19. "Relief to Municipalities," 4.
24. 20. Mark Gefland, A Nation of Cities: The Federal Government and Urban America, 1933-1965 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 49-59.
25. 21. "Roosevelt Fights R.F.C. Loans to the Cities; For Aid by States Or By Bankruptcy Law," New York Times, June 4, 1933, 1.
26. 22. "To Confer on Aid to the Cities," New York Times, February 8, 1934, 31.
27. 23. "War on CWA Graft Begins At Capital," New York Times, January 24, 1934, 1; " To Confer on Aid," NYT, 31.
28. 23. "War on CWA Graft Begins At Capital," New York Times, January 24, 1934, 1; " To Confer on Aid," NYT, 31.
29. 24. Hearings Before the House Committee on the Judiciary, "To Amend the Bankruptcy Act, Municipal and Private Corporations," April 5, 1933, 143.
30. 25. "To Amend the Bankruptcy Act," 144-45.
31. 26. "To Amend the Bankruptcy Act," 72.
32. 27. "For Bankruptcy Bill: Wilcox Reports President Acquiscent on Plan," New York Times, May 22, 1933, 1.
33. 28. "Roosevelt Fights R.F.C. Loans to Cities; For Aid by States or by Bankruptcy Law," New York Times, June 1, 1933, 1.
34. 29. Sander Shanks Jr., "Notes on Local Government: The Municipal Bankruptcy Act (Sumners-Wilcox Bill)," American Political Science Review 28 (December 1934): 1073.
35. 30. Timothy McConnell, The Wagner Housing Act (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1959).
36. 31. Peak associations are interest groups that speak authoritatively and make binding commitments for other private interests within a policy domain. The USCM operated in this fashion on the issue of housing reform in the New Deal. Robert Salisbury notes how the USCM functioned as a peak association from the 1930s to the 1960s. "The New Convergence of Power in the Cities," Journal of Politics 25 (December 1964).
37. 32. New York City Mayor LaGuardia quoted in "Urge Two Billion in Federal Relief," New York Times, April 1, 1937, 17.
38. 33. McDonnell, The Wagner Housing Act, 73-81.
39. 34. Hearings Before the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, "Slums and Low-Rent Public Housing," June 5, 1935, 97.
40. 35. J. Joseph Huthmacher, Senator Robert F. Wagner And The Rise of Urban Liberalism (New York: Athenum, 1968), 213.
41. 36. McConnell, The Wagner Housing Act, 125.
42. 37. Public Housing Progress (the Newsletter of the NPHC) January 15, 1936, Reel 140, Item 07, LaGuardia Collection, LaGuardia and Wagner Archives, LaGuardia Community College/CUNY.
43. 38. Langdon Post, "Memo on Comprehensive Housing Reform Program," January 18, 1936, Box 53B7, Folder 8, NYC Housing Authority Collection, LaGuardia and Wagner Archives. McConnell, The Wagner Housing Act, 144.
44. 39. Untitled Letter from Roosevelt to Post, June 19, 1936, Box 53B7, Folder 8, NYC Housing Authority Collection, LaGuardia and Wagner Archives.
45. 40. McConnell, The Wagner Housing Act, 214. "Roosevelt Weighs Housing Proposals," New York Times, Feburary 15, 1936, 2.
46. 41. "Billions in Low-Rent Housing Work Over 4 Years Projected for the Nation," New York Times, February 25, 1937, 1.
47. 42. "Mayor and Wagner in Housing Appeal," New York Times, April 8, 1937, 1.
48. 43. Huthmacher, Senator Robert F. Wagner, 224-25. "Conferees Agree on Housing Bill," New York Times, August 21, 1937, 4.
49. 44. James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt, 311.
50. 45. Stanley Lebergott, The Americans: An Economic Record (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1984), 464.
51. 46. Leuchtenburg, FDR and the New Deal (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), 120.
52. 47. Charles F. Searle, Minister of Relief (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1963), 31, 49.
53. 48. Searle, Minister of Relief, 51.
54. 49. Forrest Walker, The Civil Works Administration: An Experiement in Works Relief (New York: Garland Press, 1979), 51.
55. 50. Schwartz, The Civil Works Administration, Ch. 3.
56. 51. Walker, The Civil Works Administration, 108.
57. 52. Gunther, Federal-City Relations, 94-95.
58. 53. Hearings Before the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, "Additional Public Works Appropriations," April 30, 1934, 165.
59. 54. "Additional Public Works Appropriations," 177.
60. 55. "Additional Public Works Appropriations," 174.
61. 56. "Additional Public Works Appropriations," 173.
62. 57. Leo Dure, Jr., "Relief Fund To Last Urged on Roosevelt," Washington Post, September 23, 1934, 1.
63. 58. "Permanent Relief Asked By Mayors From Roosevelt," New York Times, September 23, 1934, 1.
64. 59. "Permanent Relief Asked," 1.
65. 60. "Mayors Ask For Part of Big Work Relief Fund," New York Times, April 12, 1935, 16.
66. 61. Gunther, Federal-City Relations, 108.
67. 62. Searle, Minister of Relief, 92.
68. 63. Letter from Harry Hopkins to James Roosevelt, November 15, 1937, U.S. Conference of Mayors, 1937-1944, Offical Files, Box 2, FDR Library.
69. 64. Kenneth Davis, FDR: The New Deal Years (New York: Random House, 1986), 434.
70. 65. MacMahon, et al., The Administration of Federal Work Relief (Chicago, IL: Social Science Research Council, 1941), 4.
71. 66. Steven Erie, Rainbow's End: Irish-Americans and the Dilemmas of Machine Politics, 1840-1985 (Berkley, CA: University of Claifornia Press, 1988), 137.
72. 67. Erie, Rainbow's End, 129.
73. 68. The cities in Erie's study are: New York, Jersey City, Albany, Chicago, Pittsburg and Boston.
74. 69. The New Republic, April 18, 1936, 248.
75. 70. Donald Howard, The WPA and Federal Relief Policy (Chicago: Public Administration Service, 1943), 107.
76. 71. The New Republic, April 18, 1936, 248.
77. 72. "Mayors Ask Job Aid of $2,340,000," New York Times, January 14, 1936, 14. "Mayors Declare WPA Must Stay," NYT, February 23, 1936, 3. "WPA Continuance Urged By Mayors," NYT, February 25, 1936, 22. "Mayors Press Pleas For $2,340,000,000," NYT, March 13, 1936, 17. "Big Cities Will Aid 500,000 Able Idle," NYT, April 24, 1936, 2.
78. 72. "Mayors Ask Job Aid of $2,340,000," New York Times, January 14, 1936, 14. "Mayors Declare WPA Must Stay," NYT, February 23, 1936, 3. "WPA Continuance Urged By Mayors," NYT, February 25, 1936, 22. "Mayors Press Pleas For $2,340,000,000," NYT, March 13, 1936, 17. "Big Cities Will Aid 500,000 Able Idle," NYT, April 24, 1936, 2.
79. 72. "Mayors Ask Job Aid of $2,340,000," New York Times, January 14, 1936, 14. "Mayors Declare WPA Must Stay," NYT, February 23, 1936, 3. "WPA Continuance Urged By Mayors," NYT, February 25, 1936, 22. "Mayors Press Pleas For $2,340,000,000," NYT, March 13, 1936, 17. "Big Cities Will Aid 500,000 Able Idle," NYT, April 24, 1936, 2.
80. 72. "Mayors Ask Job Aid of $2,340,000," New York Times, January 14, 1936, 14. "Mayors Declare WPA Must Stay," NYT, February 23, 1936, 3. "WPA Continuance Urged By Mayors," NYT, February 25, 1936, 22. "Mayors Press Pleas For $2,340,000,000," NYT, March 13, 1936, 17. "Big Cities Will Aid 500,000 Able Idle," NYT, April 24, 1936, 2.
81. 73. "Mayors Ask For WPA $877,500,000," New York Times, January 3, 1937, 22.
82. 74. "Mayors in Capitol Ask More for WPA," New York Times, March 22, 1940, 1.
83. 75. "More Work Relief Rather Than the Dole Is Urged by Mayors," New York Times, March 24, 1938, 10.
84. 76. "Mayors Credited For Relief Plans," New York Times, April 17, 1938, Part 4, 2.
85. 77. Letter from LaGuardia to Roosevelt, April 18, 1939, Reel 217, Item 1461, LaGuardia Archives. Telegram from Paul Betters to LaGuardia, April 22, 1939, Reel 217, Item 1461, LaGuardia Archives.
86. 78. Letter from Senator James Murray to LaGuardia, May 31, 1939, Reel 217, Item 1538, LaGuardia Archives.
87. 79. "Miss Bankhead Asks Aid for Stage," New York Times, June 21, 1939, 1.
88. 80. Hearings Before the House Committee Committee on Appropriations, "Additional Appropriations for Relief," January 9, 1939, 39.
89. 81. "Mayors Back WPA; Urge Its Retention," New York Times, May 9, 1939, 1.
90. 82. Richard Polenberg, "The Decline of the New Deal," in The New Deal: The National Level, ed. Richard Polenberg (Columbus: Ohio University Press, 1975), 261.
91. 83. "Conferees Agree on 1940-41 Relief," New York Times, June 21, 1940, 22. Appropriations for the WPA remained relatively constant throughout the New Deal until the outbreak of World War II. The WPA spent $1.3 billion in 1936. After spending for the WPA peaked at $2.2 billion in 1939, spending only declined to $1.3 billion in 1941. Final Report of the WPA, 1935-43 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1944), Table 8.
92. 84. John Allswang, The New Deal and American Politics: A Study in Political Change (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978), 88.
93. 85. Lyle W. Dorsett, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the City Bosses, 87, 103.
94. 86. Sidney Milkis, The President and the Parties, 54-62.
95. 87. Rodger Biles, Big City Boss in Depression and War: Mayor Edward J. Kelly of Chicago (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1985), 78.
96. 88. Biles, Big City Boss, 78-79.
97. 89. Thomas Kessner, Fiorello H. LaGuardia and the Making of Modern New York (New York: McGraw-Hill Publishers Company, 1989), 337.
98. 90. "Mayor's Speech Before the Herald Tribune," October 19, 1944, Reel 16, Item #476, LaGuardia Archives.
99. 91. Kessner, Fiorello H. LaGuardia, 337.
100. 92. "Open Letter to the USCM from FDR," PPF 782, U.S. Conference of Mayors, FDR Library.
101. 93. Works Progress Administration, Research Bulletin #14 (Washington, DC: July 3, 1935). Ickes believed, somewhat spitefully, that Hopkins had chosen the name "Works Progress Administration" so that it would "shine by the refracted light" of his own, well established PWA. In truth, Hopkins had not chosen the name, and he disliked it anyway. T. H. Watkins, Righteous Pilgrim: The Life and Times of Harold L. Ickes, 1874-1952 (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1990), 375.
102. 93. Works Progress Administration, Research Bulletin #14 (Washington, DC: July 3, 1935). Ickes believed, somewhat spitefully, that Hopkins had chosen the name "Works Progress Administration" so that it would "shine by the refracted light" of his own, well established PWA. In truth, Hopkins had not chosen the name, and he disliked it anyway. T. H. Watkins, Righteous Pilgrim: The Life and Times of Harold L. Ickes, 1874-1952 (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1990), 375.
103. 94. Charles E. Jacob, Leadership in the New Deal: The Administrative Challenge (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963), 13.
104. 95. The official documents of the Advisory Committee on Allotments make clear that Mayor LaGuardia served on the Board in his role as president of the USCM, not in his role as Mayor of New York City.
105. 96. "Proceedings of the Advisory Committee on Allotments," May 7, 1935, Harry Hopkins Papers, Federal Relief Agency Papers, Relief Plans and Programs, Memoranda and Reports, Container 47, FDR Library.
106. 97. "Proceedings of the Advisory Committee on Allotments."
107. 98. "Proceedings of the Advisory Committee on Allotments"; Gunther, Federal-City Relations in the United States, 35.
108. 99. Gunther, Federal-City Relations in the United States, 125.
109. 100. "Memo to State WPA Administrators from the WPA Information Service," May 31, 1936, Harry Hopkins Papers, Memoranda and Reports, Container 53, FDR Library.
110. 101. Letter from Paul Betters to FDR, February 13, 1936; "100 American Cities With A Total Population of 25 Million People Answer These Questions . . . A Report Prepared by the U.S. Conference of Mayors and Submitted to the President of the United States," March 12, 1936; "A Report on the Existing Relief Situation . . . Submitted to the President of the United States," Janurary 2, 1937; All in the FDR Papers, U.S. Conference of Mayors, 1933-1936, Official Files, Box 1, FDR Library.
111. 102. "Publications," City Problems of 1933: The Annual Proceedings of the USCM, Paul Betters editor (Chicago: USCM, 1934), 111.
112. 103. Susan Farkas, Urban Lobbying: Mayors in the Federal Arena (New York: New York University Press, 1971), 32.
113. 104. Finegold and Skocpol note: "The administrative organization of government is critical, especially when policies calling for increased government intervention are to be implemented." Kenneth Finegold and Theda Skocpol, "State, Party and Industry: From Business Recovery to the Wagner Act in America's New Deal," in Statemaking and Social Movements: Essays in History and Theory, ed. Charles C. Bright and Susan F. Harding (University of Michigan Press, 1984), 168.
114. 105. As John Coleman notes, the reorganization plan reflected "a desire for institutional entrenchment of the New Deal . . . not simply a system of Presidential aggrandizement." John Coleman, "American Parties in the Fiscal State," Studies in American Political Development 9 (Fall 1992): 219.
115. 106. Simon Leland, "Needed: New Municipal Revenues," City Problems of 1933: The Annual Proceedings of the USCM, ed. Paul Betters (Chicago: USCM, 1934), 14.
116. 107. All three addressed the USCM's annual convention on multiple occasions during the New Deal years. On Brownlow and Gulick, see: Blake McKelvey, The Emergence of Metropolitan America, 1915-1966 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1968); on Merriman see, Kenneth Finegold, Experts and Politicians: Reform Challenges to Machine Politics in New York, Cleveland and Chicago (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
117. 107. All three addressed the USCM's annual convention on multiple occasions during the New Deal years. On Brownlow and Gulick, see: Blake McKelvey, The Emergence of Metropolitan America, 1915-1966 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1968); on Merriman see, Kenneth Finegold, Experts and Politicians: Reform Challenges to Machine Politics in New York, Cleveland and Chicago (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
118. 108. Richard Polenburg, Reorganizing Roosevelt's Government: The Controversy Over Executive Reorganization, 1936-1939 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), ch. 1.
119. 109. Barry Karl, "Constitution and Central Planning," 183.
120. 110. Polenburg, Reorganizing Roosevelt's Government, 21.
121. 111. Polenburg, Reorganizing Roosevelt's Government, 21, 33, 125-27, 166.
122. 112. Karl, "Constitution and Central Planning," 188.
123. 113. Polenburg, Reorganizing Roosevelt's Government, 27.
124. 114. Marion Clawson, quoted in Ira Katznelson and Bruce Pietrykowski, "Rebuilding the American State," Studies In American Political Development 6 (Fall 1991): 310.
125. 115. Quoted in Mark Gelfand, A Nation of Cities: The Federal Government and Urban America, 1933-1965 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 117.
126. 116. Marion Clawson, New Deal Planning: The National Resource Planning Board (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981).
127. 117. Peter K. Eisinger, "The Search for a National Urban Policy, 1960-1980," Journal of Urban History 12 (November 1985).
128. 118. Steven Skowronek, Building A New American State, 16.
129. 119. Steven Skowronek's concept of "patchwork state development" dovetails with Theodore Lowi's notion of interest group liberalism. Lowi argues that Congress and President delegate power to interest groups to carry out policy and engage in self-regulation. The delegation of power to interest groups means that there is no need for a strong federal bureaucracy to administer or to regulate policy.
130. 120. Robert Wood and Beverly M. Klimkowsky, "HUD in the Nineties: Doubt-ability and Do-ability," The Future of National Urban Policy, ed. Marshall Kaplan and Franklin James (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990), 253-54.
131. 121. Marshall Kaplan, "National Urban Policy: Where Are We Now? Where Are We Going?," The Future of National Urban Policy, 174-75. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding (New York: The Free Press, 1970).
132. 121. Marshall Kaplan, "National Urban Policy: Where Are We Now? Where Are We Going?," The Future of National Urban Policy, 174-75. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding (New York: The Free Press, 1970).
133. 122. James Sundquist, Making Federalism Work (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1969).
134. 123. Edward Bainfield, "Making A Federal Program: Model Cities, 1964-1968," in Politics and Policy in America: Six Cases, ed. Allan Sindler (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1973), 133.
135. 124. "HUD emerged with the definition of its purpose and approaches vague and uncertain in the drive to give it institutional life," writes Charles Harr. Charles Harr, Between Idea and the Reality: A Study in the Origin, Fate and Legacy of the Model Cities Program (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1975), 33.
136. 125. This is not to make the neo-conservative assertion that government made urban problems worse, but to suggest that urban problems produced by changes in the economy and social relations quickly outstripped the capacity of the patchwork state to deal with them.
137. 126. Dennis Judd and Francis Kopel, "The Search for National Urban Policy: From Kennedy to Carter," in Nationalizing Government, ed. Theodore Lowi (Santa Monica, CA: Sage, 1979).
138. 127. The Proceedings of the US Conference of Mayors (Washington, DC: USCM, 1981), 1. In light of patterns of metropolitan economic development, the Secretary's remark takes on an unintended double meaning.
139. 128. Helen Ladd, "Big-City Finances in the New Era," in The Changing Face of Fiscal Federalism, ed. Thomas R. Schwartz and John E. Peak (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1990).
140. 129. Farkas, Urban Lobbying, 32.
141. 130. Charles H. Levine and James A. Thurber, "Reagan and the Intergovernmental Lobby: Iron Triangles, Cozy Subsystems and Political Conflict," Interest Group Politics, 2d ed., ed. Allan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1986), 212.
142. 131. Rochelle L. Stanfield, " 'Defunding the Left' May Remain Just Another Fond Dream of Conservatives," National Journal, August 1, 1981, 1375.
143. 132. Levine and Thurber, "Reagan and the Intergovernmental Lobby," 214.
144. 133. Jonathan Walters, "Lobbying For the Good Old Days," Governing 5 (June 1991): 35.
145. 134. William Schneider, "The Suburban Century Begins," Atlantic Monthly, July 1992.
146. 135. On the electoral forces shaping national urban policy, see: John Mollenkopf, Contested Cities (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983); Raymond A. Mohl, "Shifting Patterns of Urban Policy," in Urban Policy in Twentieth Century America, ed. Arnold R. Hirsh and Raymond A. Mohl (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993).
147. 135. On the electoral forces shaping national urban policy, see: John Mollenkopf, Contested Cities (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983); Raymond A. Mohl, "Shifting Patterns of Urban Policy," in Urban Policy in Twentieth Century America, ed. Arnold R. Hirsh and Raymond A. Mohl (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993).
148. 136. Finegold and Skocpol, State and Party in America's New Deal, ch. 9; Hugh Heclo, Modern Social Policies in Britain and Sweden (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974).
149. 136. Finegold and Skocpol, State and Party in America's New Deal, ch. 9; Hugh Heclo, Modern Social Policies in Britain and Sweden (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974).
150. 137. Demetrios Caraley, "Washington Abandons the Cities," Political Science Quarterly 107 (Spring 1992): 1-30.
151. One unidentified urban lobbyist, commenting on the problems of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, made a statement that reflects the problems of federal urban policy more generally: "The combination of a crappy bureaucracy, programs that have some visible problems . . . and an inherently weak constituency is a recipe for disaster." Quoted in Rochelle L. Stanfield, "What's Cooking? A Recipe for Disaster," National Journal, July 29, 1995, 1977.