An alliance between men: Gender metaphors in eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy east of the Mississippi

Ethnohistory

Volumn 46, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 239-263

  Shoemaker, Nancy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

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EID: 0033241115     PISSN: 00141801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
2. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
3. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
4. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
5. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
6. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
7. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
8. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
9. The best-known work to address the issue of kin metaphors is Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York, 1991), 84. See also Mary Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, eds. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 29-39; Patricia Galloway, " 'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, eds. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78; Bruce White, " 'Give Us a Little Milk': The Social and Cultural Meanings of Gift Giving in the Lake Superior Fur Trade," Minnesota History 48 (1982): 60-71; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984), 44-46, 160-62. Other historians who have discussed the language and rituals of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century American Indian diplomacy are M. Thomas Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York, 1993); Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985); James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC, 1989), chap. 4; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
10. Only occasionally do council records reveal the presence of women. Even one of the most descriptive accounts of an English-Indian council, Witham Marshe's journal of the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, mentions women only briefly: men arrived with their wives and children - and then later Marshe wrote of his chance meeting with Maria Montour, head of a fur trading family - many of whom, including herself, often served as council interpreters. See "Witham Marshe's Journal of the Treaty Held with the Six Nations By the Commissioners of Maryland, and Other Provinces, at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, June, 1744," in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1st ser., vol. 7 (1800; reprint, New York, 1968), 171-201. Other typical instances of women mentioned in council records are when an Indian speaker presented a message from the women, accompanied by a wampum belt, to the English in 1710; women and children received gifts from the English and then returned them; women made wampum belts; see [Samuel Hazard, ed.], Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, 10 vols. (Philadelphia and Harrisburg, PA, 1851-52), 2:511, 5:285 , 7:216. For women making wampum belts, see also Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze, eds., "David Zeisberger's History of the Northern American Indians," Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 19 (1910): 95. And for Indian women repeating speeches, see Intelligence from Indian Nancy to Capt. Rayd. Demere, 12 December 1756; Intelligence from Nancy Butler to Demere, 2.0 December 1756; and Capt. Rayd. Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 23 December 1756; in William L. McDowell Jr., ed., Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 2. vols. (Columbia, sc, 1958-70), 2:269, 275, 282.
11. Only occasionally do council records reveal the presence of women. Even one of the most descriptive accounts of an English-Indian council, Witham Marshe's journal of the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, mentions women only briefly: men arrived with their wives and children - and then later Marshe wrote of his chance meeting with Maria Montour, head of a fur trading family - many of whom, including herself, often served as council interpreters. See "Witham Marshe's Journal of the Treaty Held with the Six Nations By the Commissioners of Maryland, and Other Provinces, at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, June, 1744," in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1st ser., vol. 7 (1800; reprint, New York, 1968), 171-201. Other typical instances of women mentioned in council records are when an Indian speaker presented a message from the women, accompanied by a wampum belt, to the English in 1710; women and children received gifts from the English and then returned them; women made wampum belts; see [Samuel Hazard, ed.], Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, 10 vols. (Philadelphia and Harrisburg, PA, 1851-52), 2:511, 5:285 , 7:216. For women making wampum belts, see also Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze, eds., "David Zeisberger's History of the Northern American Indians," Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 19 (1910): 95. And for Indian women repeating speeches, see Intelligence from Indian Nancy to Capt. Rayd. Demere, 12 December 1756; Intelligence from Nancy Butler to Demere, 2.0 December 1756; and Capt. Rayd. Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 23 December 1756; in William L. McDowell Jr., ed., Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 2. vols. (Columbia, sc, 1958-70), 2:269, 275, 282.
12. Only occasionally do council records reveal the presence of women. Even one of the most descriptive accounts of an English-Indian council, Witham Marshe's journal of the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, mentions women only briefly: men arrived with their wives and children - and then later Marshe wrote of his chance meeting with Maria Montour, head of a fur trading family - many of whom, including herself, often served as council interpreters. See "Witham Marshe's Journal of the Treaty Held with the Six Nations By the Commissioners of Maryland, and Other Provinces, at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, June, 1744," in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1st ser., vol. 7 (1800; reprint, New York, 1968), 171-201. Other typical instances of women mentioned in council records are when an Indian speaker presented a message from the women, accompanied by a wampum belt, to the English in 1710; women and children received gifts from the English and then returned them; women made wampum belts; see [Samuel Hazard, ed.], Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, 10 vols. (Philadelphia and Harrisburg, PA, 1851-52), 2:511, 5:285 , 7:216. For women making wampum belts, see also Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze, eds., "David Zeisberger's History of the Northern American Indians," Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 19 (1910): 95. And for Indian women repeating speeches, see Intelligence from Indian Nancy to Capt. Rayd. Demere, 12 December 1756; Intelligence from Nancy Butler to Demere, 2.0 December 1756; and Capt. Rayd. Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 23 December 1756; in William L. McDowell Jr., ed., Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 2. vols. (Columbia, sc, 1958-70), 2:269, 275, 282.
13. Only occasionally do council records reveal the presence of women. Even one of the most descriptive accounts of an English-Indian council, Witham Marshe's journal of the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, mentions women only briefly: men arrived with their wives and children - and then later Marshe wrote of his chance meeting with Maria Montour, head of a fur trading family - many of whom, including herself, often served as council interpreters. See "Witham Marshe's Journal of the Treaty Held with the Six Nations By the Commissioners of Maryland, and Other Provinces, at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, June, 1744," in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1st ser., vol. 7 (1800; reprint, New York, 1968), 171-201. Other typical instances of women mentioned in council records are when an Indian speaker presented a message from the women, accompanied by a wampum belt, to the English in 1710; women and children received gifts from the English and then returned them; women made wampum belts; see [Samuel Hazard, ed.], Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, 10 vols. (Philadelphia and Harrisburg, PA, 1851-52), 2:511, 5:285 , 7:216. For women making wampum belts, see also Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze, eds., "David Zeisberger's History of the Northern American Indians," Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 19 (1910): 95. And for Indian women repeating speeches, see Intelligence from Indian Nancy to Capt. Rayd. Demere, 12 December 1756; Intelligence from Nancy Butler to Demere, 2.0 December 1756; and Capt. Rayd. Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 23 December 1756; in William L. McDowell Jr., ed., Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 2. vols. (Columbia, sc, 1958-70), 2:269, 275, 282.
14. Only occasionally do council records reveal the presence of women. Even one of the most descriptive accounts of an English-Indian council, Witham Marshe's journal of the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, mentions women only briefly: men arrived with their wives and children - and then later Marshe wrote of his chance meeting with Maria Montour, head of a fur trading family - many of whom, including herself, often served as council interpreters. See "Witham Marshe's Journal of the Treaty Held with the Six Nations By the Commissioners of Maryland, and Other Provinces, at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, June, 1744," in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1st ser., vol. 7 (1800; reprint, New York, 1968), 171-201. Other typical instances of women mentioned in council records are when an Indian speaker presented a message from the women, accompanied by a wampum belt, to the English in 1710; women and children received gifts from the English and then returned them; women made wampum belts; see [Samuel Hazard, ed.], Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, 10 vols. (Philadelphia and Harrisburg, PA, 1851-52), 2:511, 5:285 , 7:216. For women making wampum belts, see also Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze, eds., "David Zeisberger's History of the Northern American Indians," Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 19 (1910): 95. And for Indian women repeating speeches, see Intelligence from Indian Nancy to Capt. Rayd. Demere, 12 December 1756; Intelligence from Nancy Butler to Demere, 2.0 December 1756; and Capt. Rayd. Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 23 December 1756; in William L. McDowell Jr., ed., Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 2. vols. (Columbia, sc, 1958-70), 2:269, 275, 282.
15. Only occasionally do council records reveal the presence of women. Even one of the most descriptive accounts of an English-Indian council, Witham Marshe's journal of the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, mentions women only briefly: men arrived with their wives and children - and then later Marshe wrote of his chance meeting with Maria Montour, head of a fur trading family - many of whom, including herself, often served as council interpreters. See "Witham Marshe's Journal of the Treaty Held with the Six Nations By the Commissioners of Maryland, and Other Provinces, at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, June, 1744," in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1st ser., vol. 7 (1800; reprint, New York, 1968), 171-201. Other typical instances of women mentioned in council records are when an Indian speaker presented a message from the women, accompanied by a wampum belt, to the English in 1710; women and children received gifts from the English and then returned them; women made wampum belts; see [Samuel Hazard, ed.], Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, 10 vols. (Philadelphia and Harrisburg, PA, 1851-52), 2:511, 5:285 , 7:216. For women making wampum belts, see also Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze, eds., "David Zeisberger's History of the Northern American Indians," Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 19 (1910): 95. And for Indian women repeating speeches, see Intelligence from Indian Nancy to Capt. Rayd. Demere, 12 December 1756; Intelligence from Nancy Butler to Demere, 2.0 December 1756; and Capt. Rayd. Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 23 December 1756; in William L. McDowell Jr., ed., Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 2. vols. (Columbia, sc, 1958-70), 2:269, 275, 282.
16. For a review of the literature, see the introduction in Nancy Shoemaker, ed., Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women (New York, 1995), 1-25. Most of the articles in this collection focus on the roles and status of Indian women, as do most of the articles in two other noteworthy collections: Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine, eds., The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women (Lanham, MD, 1983) and Laura F. Klein and Lillian A. Ackerman, eds., Women and Power in Native North America (Norman, OK, 1995). Since 1995, a significant contribution to the literature has appeared with the publication of Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln, NE, 1998).
17. For a review of the literature, see the introduction in Nancy Shoemaker, ed., Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women (New York, 1995), 1-25. Most of the articles in this collection focus on the roles and status of Indian women, as do most of the articles in two other noteworthy collections: Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine, eds., The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women (Lanham, MD, 1983) and Laura F. Klein and Lillian A. Ackerman, eds., Women and Power in Native North America (Norman, OK, 1995). Since 1995, a significant contribution to the literature has appeared with the publication of Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln, NE, 1998).
18. For a review of the literature, see the introduction in Nancy Shoemaker, ed., Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women (New York, 1995), 1-25. Most of the articles in this collection focus on the roles and status of Indian women, as do most of the articles in two other noteworthy collections: Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine, eds., The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women (Lanham, MD, 1983) and Laura F. Klein and Lillian A. Ackerman, eds., Women and Power in Native North America (Norman, OK, 1995). Since 1995, a significant contribution to the literature has appeared with the publication of Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln, NE, 1998).
19. For a review of the literature, see the introduction in Nancy Shoemaker, ed., Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women (New York, 1995), 1-25. Most of the articles in this collection focus on the roles and status of Indian women, as do most of the articles in two other noteworthy collections: Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine, eds., The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women (Lanham, MD, 1983) and Laura F. Klein and Lillian A. Ackerman, eds., Women and Power in Native North America (Norman, OK, 1995). Since 1995, a significant contribution to the literature has appeared with the publication of Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln, NE, 1998).
20. Scholars writing about gender ideas have focused primarily on Euroamerican images of Indian women (for example, see Carol Douglas Sparks, "The Land Incarnate: Navajo Women and the Dialogue of Colonialism, 1821-1870," in Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 135-56; and Katherine M. Weist, "Beasts of Burden and Menial Slaves: Nineteenth Century Observations of Northern Plains Indian Women," 29-52, and Alice B. Kehoe, "The Shackles of Tradition," 53-73, in Albers and Medicine, Hidden Half). Kathleen M. Brown illustrates the potential for textual analysis and shows how cultural constructions of gender framed Indian-European interactions in the early contact period in "The Anglo-Algonquian Gender Frontier," Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 26-48. Also see her review essay, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly 50 (1993): 311-28.
21. Scholars writing about gender ideas have focused primarily on Euroamerican images of Indian women (for example, see Carol Douglas Sparks, "The Land Incarnate: Navajo Women and the Dialogue of Colonialism, 1821-1870," in Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 135-56; and Katherine M. Weist, "Beasts of Burden and Menial Slaves: Nineteenth Century Observations of Northern Plains Indian Women," 29-52, and Alice B. Kehoe, "The Shackles of Tradition," 53-73, in Albers and Medicine, Hidden Half). Kathleen M. Brown illustrates the potential for textual analysis and shows how cultural constructions of gender framed Indian-European interactions in the early contact period in "The Anglo-Algonquian Gender Frontier," Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 26-48. Also see her review essay, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly 50 (1993): 311-28.
22. Scholars writing about gender ideas have focused primarily on Euroamerican images of Indian women (for example, see Carol Douglas Sparks, "The Land Incarnate: Navajo Women and the Dialogue of Colonialism, 1821-1870," in Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 135-56; and Katherine M. Weist, "Beasts of Burden and Menial Slaves: Nineteenth Century Observations of Northern Plains Indian Women," 29-52, and Alice B. Kehoe, "The Shackles of Tradition," 53-73, in Albers and Medicine, Hidden Half). Kathleen M. Brown illustrates the potential for textual analysis and shows how cultural constructions of gender framed Indian-European interactions in the early contact period in "The Anglo-Algonquian Gender Frontier," Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 26-48. Also see her review essay, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly 50 (1993): 311-28.
23. Scholars writing about gender ideas have focused primarily on Euroamerican images of Indian women (for example, see Carol Douglas Sparks, "The Land Incarnate: Navajo Women and the Dialogue of Colonialism, 1821-1870," in Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 135-56; and Katherine M. Weist, "Beasts of Burden and Menial Slaves: Nineteenth Century Observations of Northern Plains Indian Women," 29-52, and Alice B. Kehoe, "The Shackles of Tradition," 53-73, in Albers and Medicine, Hidden Half). Kathleen M. Brown illustrates the potential for textual analysis and shows how cultural constructions of gender framed Indian-European interactions in the early contact period in "The Anglo-Algonquian Gender Frontier," Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 26-48. Also see her review essay, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly 50 (1993): 311-28.
24. Scholars writing about gender ideas have focused primarily on Euroamerican images of Indian women (for example, see Carol Douglas Sparks, "The Land Incarnate: Navajo Women and the Dialogue of Colonialism, 1821-1870," in Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 135-56; and Katherine M. Weist, "Beasts of Burden and Menial Slaves: Nineteenth Century Observations of Northern Plains Indian Women," 29-52, and Alice B. Kehoe, "The Shackles of Tradition," 53-73, in Albers and Medicine, Hidden Half). Kathleen M. Brown illustrates the potential for textual analysis and shows how cultural constructions of gender framed Indian-European interactions in the early contact period in "The Anglo-Algonquian Gender Frontier," Shoemaker, Negotiators of Change, 26-48. Also see her review essay, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly 50 (1993): 311-28.
25. The colony of Pennsylvania kept particularly thorough and detailed council transcripts; see Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council. Other examples of collections full of accounts of Indian councils are E. B. O'Callaghan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York; procured in Holland, England and France by John Romeyn Brodhead, 15 vols. (Albany, NY, 1853-87); Allen D. Candler, ed., The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 26 vols. (Atlanta, 1904-16); and Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds., Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 3 vols. (Jackson, MS, 1927-32).
26. The colony of Pennsylvania kept particularly thorough and detailed council transcripts; see Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council. Other examples of collections full of accounts of Indian councils are E. B. O'Callaghan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York; procured in Holland, England and France by John Romeyn Brodhead, 15 vols. (Albany, NY, 1853-87); Allen D. Candler, ed., The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 26 vols. (Atlanta, 1904-16); and Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds., Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 3 vols. (Jackson, MS, 1927-32).
27. The colony of Pennsylvania kept particularly thorough and detailed council transcripts; see Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council. Other examples of collections full of accounts of Indian councils are E. B. O'Callaghan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York; procured in Holland, England and France by John Romeyn Brodhead, 15 vols. (Albany, NY, 1853-87); Allen D. Candler, ed., The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 26 vols. (Atlanta, 1904-16); and Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds., Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 3 vols. (Jackson, MS, 1927-32).
28. The colony of Pennsylvania kept particularly thorough and detailed council transcripts; see Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council. Other examples of collections full of accounts of Indian councils are E. B. O'Callaghan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York; procured in Holland, England and France by John Romeyn Brodhead, 15 vols. (Albany, NY, 1853-87); Allen D. Candler, ed., The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 26 vols. (Atlanta, 1904-16); and Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds., Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 3 vols. (Jackson, MS, 1927-32).
29. Gachadow speaking for the Six Nations, Council at Lancaster (1744), in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 4:721. Like other Indian men who spoke at councils, particularly among northeastern Indians, Gachadow was by profession a speaker and designated to speak for the group. His choice of metaphor may have been his own or may have emerged from collective discussions with the Iroquois men, and perhaps also women, who told him what to say. The Iroquois may have still been using this Catawba insult as justification for warring against them in 1751, as they reputedly made the same remark at a council in a Cherokee town, but this time with the interpreter or scribe substituting the euphemism "two conveniencies." The transmitter of the Iroquois speech wondered, however, whether the Iroquois actually said this or the Cherokees, seeking to locate blame elsewhere, claimed that the Iroquois said it. See Stephen Creel to Governor Glen, 2 May 1751, in McDowell, Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 1:45-47.
30. Gachadow speaking for the Six Nations, Council at Lancaster (1744), in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 4:721. Like other Indian men who spoke at councils, particularly among northeastern Indians, Gachadow was by profession a speaker and designated to speak for the group. His choice of metaphor may have been his own or may have emerged from collective discussions with the Iroquois men, and perhaps also women, who told him what to say. The Iroquois may have still been using this Catawba insult as justification for warring against them in 1751, as they reputedly made the same remark at a council in a Cherokee town, but this time with the interpreter or scribe substituting the euphemism "two conveniencies." The transmitter of the Iroquois speech wondered, however, whether the Iroquois actually said this or the Cherokees, seeking to locate blame elsewhere, claimed that the Iroquois said it. See Stephen Creel to Governor Glen, 2 May 1751, in McDowell, Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 1:45-47.
31. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
32. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
33. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
34. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
35. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
36. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
37. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
38. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
39. For the Catawbas' reputation as warriors, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln, NE, 1967), 47. For the Chickasaws, see William Johnson to Thomas Gage, 22 August 1771, in James Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany, NY, 1921-65), 8:234; George Milligen-Johnston, "A Short Description of South-Carolina, with an Account of the Air, Weather, and Diseases at Charles-town Written in the Year 1763," in Colonial South Carolina: Two Contemporary Descriptions by Governor James Glen and Doctor George Milligen-Johnston, ed. Chapman J. Milling (Columbia, SC, 1951), 202; Robert G. McPherson, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732-1738 (Athens, GA, 1962), 192, 249. For the Creeks, see John Gerar William De Brahm, Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America, ed. Louis De Vorsey Jr. (Columbia, SC, 1971), 165; Major Farmar to the Secretary of War, 24 January 1764, Dunbar Rowland, ed., Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion (Nashville, TN, 1911), 14; Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 62. John Bartram wrote that the Iroquois "enjoy the character of being the most warlike people in N. America," in Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram, In his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, In Canada (London, 1751), 78; and Cadwallader Colden called the Iroquois "the fiercest and most formidable" of Indian nations, in his The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada (1747; reprint, Toronto, 1972), 4.
40. "Broth" in Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 108. In 1725, Indian allies of the Creeks said they had no people "To warr Against nor Yet no Meal To Eat But the Cherokeys," in "Tobias Fitch's Journal to the Creeks" (1725), in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness, (New York, 1916), 189; the Senecas invited the Ottawas to join them in war, for they were "going to eat up the Huron," Speeches at an Indian Council (1732), in Sylvester K. Stevens and Donald H. Kent, eds., Wilderness Chronicles of Northwestern Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA, 1941), 7. See also Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore, MD, 1992), 12-13.
41. "Broth" in Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 108. In 1725, Indian allies of the Creeks said they had no people "To warr Against nor Yet no Meal To Eat But the Cherokeys," in "Tobias Fitch's Journal to the Creeks" (1725), in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness, (New York, 1916), 189; the Senecas invited the Ottawas to join them in war, for they were "going to eat up the Huron," Speeches at an Indian Council (1732), in Sylvester K. Stevens and Donald H. Kent, eds., Wilderness Chronicles of Northwestern Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA, 1941), 7. See also Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore, MD, 1992), 12-13.
42. "Broth" in Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 108. In 1725, Indian allies of the Creeks said they had no people "To warr Against nor Yet no Meal To Eat But the Cherokeys," in "Tobias Fitch's Journal to the Creeks" (1725), in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness, (New York, 1916), 189; the Senecas invited the Ottawas to join them in war, for they were "going to eat up the Huron," Speeches at an Indian Council (1732), in Sylvester K. Stevens and Donald H. Kent, eds., Wilderness Chronicles of Northwestern Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA, 1941), 7. See also Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore, MD, 1992), 12-13.
43. "Broth" in Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 108. In 1725, Indian allies of the Creeks said they had no people "To warr Against nor Yet no Meal To Eat But the Cherokeys," in "Tobias Fitch's Journal to the Creeks" (1725), in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness, (New York, 1916), 189; the Senecas invited the Ottawas to join them in war, for they were "going to eat up the Huron," Speeches at an Indian Council (1732), in Sylvester K. Stevens and Donald H. Kent, eds., Wilderness Chronicles of Northwestern Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA, 1941), 7. See also Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore, MD, 1992), 12-13.
44. Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Adair's History of the American Indians (1775; reprint Johnson City, TN, 1930), 143. Also see the speech of Tomatly Mingo, Choctaw, who asked the English to "restrain your Traders who often Treat our Warriours with Indecent Language they often call them Eunuchs (Ubacktubac) which is the most opprobrious Term that can be used in our Language," Council at Mobile (1765), in Rowland, Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion, 238. Richard C. Trexler, in Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, NY, 1995), deals with the issue of dominance between nations expressed in sexual terms (see especially pp. 76-79 for a discussion of such metaphors among North American
45. Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Adair's History of the American Indians (1775; reprint Johnson City, TN, 1930), 143. Also see the speech of Tomatly Mingo, Choctaw, who asked the English to "restrain your Traders who often Treat our Warriours with Indecent Language they often call them Eunuchs (Ubacktubac) which is the most opprobrious Term that can be used in our Language," Council at Mobile (1765), in Rowland, Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion, 238. Richard C. Trexler, in Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, NY, 1995), deals with the issue of dominance between nations expressed in sexual terms (see especially pp. 76-79 for a discussion of such metaphors among North American Indians east of the Mississippi), but by arguing that male rape accompanied conquest he may give metaphors of dominance too much credence as actual acts of sexual dominance. Despite threats to use men as women, eastern Indians did not include rape, whether of men or of women, among their wartime activities; even English writers who cast Indians as brutal and demonic acknowledged that English soldiers were more likely than Indian warriors to rape women. See John E. Ferling, A Wilderness of Miseries: War and Warriors in Early America (Westport, CT, 1980), 47. Nineteenth-century captivity narratives involving western Indians often included tales of rape, but captives among eastern tribes more often remarked upon the lack of sexual mistreatment in their experiences. See June Namias, White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier (Chapel Hill, NC, 1993), 47.
46. Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Adair's History of the American Indians (1775; reprint Johnson City, TN, 1930), 143. Also see the speech of Tomatly Mingo, Choctaw, who asked the English to "restrain your Traders who often Treat our Warriours with Indecent Language they often call them Eunuchs (Ubacktubac) which is the most opprobrious Term that can be used in our Language," Council at Mobile (1765), in Rowland, Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion, 238. Richard C. Trexler, in Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, NY, 1995), deals with the issue of dominance between nations expressed in sexual terms (see especially pp. 76-79 for a discussion of such metaphors among North American Indians east of the Mississippi), but by arguing that male rape accompanied conquest he may give metaphors of dominance too much credence as actual acts of sexual dominance. Despite threats to use men as women, eastern Indians did not include rape, whether of men or of women, among their wartime activities; even English writers who cast Indians as brutal and demonic acknowledged that English soldiers were more likely than Indian warriors to rape women. See John E. Ferling, A Wilderness of Miseries: War and Warriors in Early America (Westport, CT, 1980), 47. Nineteenth-century captivity narratives involving western Indians often included tales of rape, but captives among eastern tribes more often remarked upon the lack of sexual mistreatment in their experiences. See June Namias, White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier (Chapel Hill, NC, 1993), 47.
47. Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Adair's History of the American Indians (1775; reprint Johnson City, TN, 1930), 143. Also see the speech of Tomatly Mingo, Choctaw, who asked the English to "restrain your Traders who often Treat our Warriours with Indecent Language they often call them Eunuchs (Ubacktubac) which is the most opprobrious Term that can be used in our Language," Council at Mobile (1765), in Rowland, Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion, 238. Richard C. Trexler, in Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, NY, 1995), deals with the issue of dominance between nations expressed in sexual terms (see especially pp. 76-79 for a discussion of such metaphors among North American Indians east of the Mississippi), but by arguing that male rape accompanied conquest he may give metaphors of dominance too much credence as actual acts of sexual dominance. Despite threats to use men as women, eastern Indians did not include rape, whether of men or of women, among their wartime activities; even English writers who cast Indians as brutal and demonic acknowledged that English soldiers were more likely than Indian warriors to rape women. See John E. Ferling, A Wilderness of Miseries: War and Warriors in Early America (Westport, CT, 1980), 47. Nineteenth-century captivity narratives involving western Indians often included tales of rape, but captives among eastern tribes more often remarked upon the lack of sexual mistreatment in their experiences. See June Namias, White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier (Chapel Hill, NC, 1993), 47.
48. Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Adair's History of the American Indians (1775; reprint Johnson City, TN, 1930), 143. Also see the speech of Tomatly Mingo, Choctaw, who asked the English to "restrain your Traders who often Treat our Warriours with Indecent Language they often call them Eunuchs (Ubacktubac) which is the most opprobrious Term that can be used in our Language," Council at Mobile (1765), in Rowland, Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion, 238. Richard C. Trexler, in Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, NY, 1995), deals with the issue of dominance between nations expressed in sexual terms (see especially pp. 76-79 for a discussion of such metaphors among North American Indians east of the Mississippi), but by arguing that male rape accompanied conquest he may give metaphors of dominance too much credence as actual acts of sexual dominance. Despite threats to use men as women, eastern Indians did not include rape, whether of men or of women, among their wartime activities; even English writers who cast Indians as brutal and demonic acknowledged that English soldiers were more likely than Indian warriors to rape women. See John E. Ferling, A Wilderness of Miseries: War and Warriors in Early America (Westport, CT, 1980), 47. Nineteenth-century captivity narratives involving western Indians often included tales of rape, but captives among eastern tribes more often remarked upon the lack of sexual mistreatment in their experiences. See June Namias, White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier (Chapel Hill, NC, 1993), 47.
49. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 34-35. In the eighteenth century, Delaware and Iroquois women grew the plant food for their families and also, as heads of matrilineal clans, held similar political functions. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society: Three Aspects of Aboriginal Delaware Life," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 17 (1947): 1-35; Elisabeth Tooker, "Women in Iroquois Society," in Extending the Rafters: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Iroquoian Studies, eds. Michael K. Foster, Jack Campisi, and Marianne Mithun (Albany, NY, 1984), 109-23; and Judith K. Brown, "Economic Organization and the Position of Women among the Iroquois," Ethnohistory 17 (1970): 151-67.
50. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 34-35. In the eighteenth century, Delaware and Iroquois women grew the plant food for their families and also, as heads of matrilineal clans, held similar political functions. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society: Three Aspects of Aboriginal Delaware Life," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 17 (1947): 1-35; Elisabeth Tooker, "Women in Iroquois Society," in Extending the Rafters: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Iroquoian Studies, eds. Michael K. Foster, Jack Campisi, and Marianne Mithun (Albany, NY, 1984), 109-23; and Judith K. Brown, "Economic Organization and the Position of Women among the Iroquois," Ethnohistory 17 (1970): 151-67.
51. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 34-35. In the eighteenth century, Delaware and Iroquois women grew the plant food for their families and also, as heads of matrilineal clans, held similar political functions. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society: Three Aspects of Aboriginal Delaware Life," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 17 (1947): 1-35; Elisabeth Tooker, "Women in Iroquois Society," in Extending the Rafters: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Iroquoian Studies, eds. Michael K. Foster, Jack Campisi, and Marianne Mithun (Albany, NY, 1984), 109-23; and Judith K. Brown, "Economic Organization and the Position of Women among the Iroquois," Ethnohistory 17 (1970): 151-67.
52. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 34-35. In the eighteenth century, Delaware and Iroquois women grew the plant food for their families and also, as heads of matrilineal clans, held similar political functions. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society: Three Aspects of Aboriginal Delaware Life," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 17 (1947): 1-35; Elisabeth Tooker, "Women in Iroquois Society," in Extending the Rafters: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Iroquoian Studies, eds. Michael K. Foster, Jack Campisi, and Marianne Mithun (Albany, NY, 1984), 109-23; and Judith K. Brown, "Economic Organization and the Position of Women among the Iroquois," Ethnohistory 17 (1970): 151-67.
53. William Bartram claimed that at the 1773 Treaty of Augusta the Creeks called the Cherokees "old women" and reminded them that they wore "petticoats," but since Creek and Cherokee headmen in other sources do not mention such a relationship, I suspect that Bartram heard a gender metaphor of some sort and as a resident of Pennsylvania jumped to the conclusion that the Creeks and Cherokees were like the Iroquois and Delawares. Bartram probably heard something similar to the Creek metaphors mentioned elsewhere in this article. See Francis Harper, ed., The Travels of William Bartram, Naturalist's Edition (New Haven, CT, 1958), 308.
54. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society," 20-32; Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14; Jennings, Ambiguous Iroquois Empire, 161-62; C. A. Weslager, "The Delaware Indians as Women," Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 34 (1944): 381-88.
55. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society," 20-32; Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14; Jennings, Ambiguous Iroquois Empire, 161-62; C. A. Weslager, "The Delaware Indians as Women," Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 34 (1944): 381-88.
56. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society," 20-32; Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14; Jennings, Ambiguous Iroquois Empire, 161-62; C. A. Weslager, "The Delaware Indians as Women," Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 34 (1944): 381-88.
57. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society," 20-32; Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14; Jennings, Ambiguous Iroquois Empire, 161-62; C. A. Weslager, "The Delaware Indians as Women," Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 34 (1944): 381-88.
58. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 34.
59. Hithquoquean speaking for Delawares, Council at Philadelphia (1694), in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 1:447.
60. Unidentified Delaware speaker, in ibid., 6:36.
61. Message from Scarroyady speaking for the Six Nations, 11 September 1755, in ibid., 6:615; unidentified Delaware speaker quoted (much after the fact) by Zeisberger, in Hulbert, and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 36.
62. Message from Scarroyady speaking for the Six Nations, 11 September 1755, in ibid., 6:615; unidentified Delaware speaker quoted (much after the fact) by Zeisberger, in Hulbert, and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 36.
63. Governor Morris to William Johnson, 15 November 1755, in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 6:701.
64. An Indian named Newcastle, repeating message sent from the Iroquois to the Delawares, Council at Easton (1756), in ibid., 7:218. Newcastle then went directly to the Six Nations, confirmed the truth of this speech and repeated it in substance, adding that the Mohawk chief Canyase had told the Delawares, "[I] help to cut off your Pettycoats, and so far make a Man of you, but I do not put the Tomahawk in your Hand." Council at Philadelphia (1756), in ibid., 7:297.
65. An Indian named Newcastle, repeating message sent from the Iroquois to the Delawares, Council at Easton (1756), in ibid., 7:218. Newcastle then went directly to the Six Nations, confirmed the truth of this speech and repeated it in substance, adding that the Mohawk chief Canyase had told the Delawares, "[I] help to cut off your Pettycoats, and so far make a Man of you, but I do not put the Tomahawk in your Hand." Council at Philadelphia (1756), in ibid., 7:297.
66. Teedyuscung, speaking for the Delawares, Council at Philadelphia (1756), in ibid., 7:317. For more on Teedyuscung's motivations and the situation of the Delawares, see Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763 (1949; reprint, Syracuse, NY, 1990).
67. Teedyuscung, speaking for the Delawares, Council at Philadelphia (1756), in ibid., 7:317. For more on Teedyuscung's motivations and the situation of the Delawares, see Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763 (1949; reprint, Syracuse, NY, 1990).
68. Little Abraham repeating message that their "Deputies" brought back from the Ohio country, Council at Lancaster (1757), in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 7:522. For a French account of the Delaware position, see Edward P. Hamilton, ed., Adventure in the Wilderness: The American Journals of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, 1756-1760 (Norman, OK, 1964), 105.
69. Little Abraham repeating message that their "Deputies" brought back from the Ohio country, Council at Lancaster (1757), in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 7:522. For a French account of the Delaware position, see Edward P. Hamilton, ed., Adventure in the Wilderness: The American Journals of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, 1756-1760 (Norman, OK, 1964), 105.
70. Sassoonan, speaking for the Delawares, Council at Philadelphia (1728), in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 3:334.
71. Teedyuscung, Council at Easton (1756), in ibid., 7:217.
72. Canassatego, speaking for the Six Nations, Council at Lancaster (1742), in ibid., 4:579-80.
73. Wallace, "Woman, Land, and Society," 27-28.
74. Zeisberger then translated Echro into Delaware as ochquèu. David Zeisberger, Zeisberger's Indian Dictionary: English, German, Iroquois - the Onondaga - and Algonquin - the Delaware (Cambridge, MA, 1887), 234.
75. Unidentified Indian quoted in Ferrall Wade to William Johnson, 22 September 1771, in Sullivan, Papers of Sir William Johnson, 8:273.
76. Catharine A. MacKinnon, Toward a Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 128.
77. Recounted by Mr. Tadot, At a Court of Enquiry held at Detroit, 6 April 1765, in Sullivan, Papers of Sir William Johnson, 4:676.
78. Letter/Speech from Mohawks to Catawbas, Council at Fort Johnson (1758), in ibid., 9:961.
79. In 1791 the "elders of the Indian women" intervened in a diplomatic discussion for, as they said, "we are the owners of this land"; however, they first intervened by speaking privately to the U.S. commissioner, and then, when the issue came before the council, the clan mothers sat prominently with the chiefs while a male speaker, Red-Jacket, spoke for them. See William L. Stone, The Life and Times of Red-Jacket, or Sa-go-ye-wat-ha (New York, 1841), 56-57. For more on nineteenth-century Iroquois women's efforts to prevent the loss of land to the United States, see Joan M. Jensen, "Native American Women and Agriculture: A Seneca Case Study," in Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, eds. Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, ist ed. (New York, 1990), 51-65; Nancy Shoemaker, "The Rise or Fall of Iroquois Women," Journal of Women's History 2 (1991): 39-57; and Herman J. Viola, Diplomats in Buckskin: A History of Indian Delegations in Washington City (Washington, DC, 1981), 77.
80. In 1791 the "elders of the Indian women" intervened in a diplomatic discussion for, as they said, "we are the owners of this land"; however, they first intervened by speaking privately to the U.S. commissioner, and then, when the issue came before the council, the clan mothers sat prominently with the chiefs while a male speaker, Red-Jacket, spoke for them. See William L. Stone, The Life and Times of Red-Jacket, or Sa-go-ye-wat-ha (New York, 1841), 56-57. For more on nineteenth-century Iroquois women's efforts to prevent the loss of land to the United States, see Joan M. Jensen, "Native American Women and Agriculture: A Seneca Case Study," in Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, eds. Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, ist ed. (New York, 1990), 51-65; Nancy Shoemaker, "The Rise or Fall of Iroquois Women," Journal of Women's History 2 (1991): 39-57; and Herman J. Viola, Diplomats in Buckskin: A History of Indian Delegations in Washington City (Washington, DC, 1981), 77.
81. In 1791 the "elders of the Indian women" intervened in a diplomatic discussion for, as they said, "we are the owners of this land"; however, they first intervened by speaking privately to the U.S. commissioner, and then, when the issue came before the council, the clan mothers sat prominently with the chiefs while a male speaker, Red-Jacket, spoke for them. See William L. Stone, The Life and Times of Red-Jacket, or Sa-go-ye-wat-ha (New York, 1841), 56-57. For more on nineteenth-century Iroquois women's efforts to prevent the loss of land to the United States, see Joan M. Jensen, "Native American Women and Agriculture: A Seneca Case Study," in Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, eds. Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, ist ed. (New York, 1990), 51-65; Nancy Shoemaker, "The Rise or Fall of Iroquois Women," Journal of Women's History 2 (1991): 39-57; and Herman J. Viola, Diplomats in Buckskin: A History of Indian Delegations in Washington City (Washington, DC, 1981), 77.
82. In 1791 the "elders of the Indian women" intervened in a diplomatic discussion for, as they said, "we are the owners of this land"; however, they first intervened by speaking privately to the U.S. commissioner, and then, when the issue came before the council, the clan mothers sat prominently with the chiefs while a male speaker, Red-Jacket, spoke for them. See William L. Stone, The Life and Times of Red-Jacket, or Sa-go-ye-wat-ha (New York, 1841), 56-57. For more on nineteenth-century Iroquois women's efforts to prevent the loss of land to the United States, see Joan M. Jensen, "Native American Women and Agriculture: A Seneca Case Study," in Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, eds. Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, ist ed. (New York, 1990), 51-65; Nancy Shoemaker, "The Rise or Fall of Iroquois Women," Journal of Women's History 2 (1991): 39-57; and Herman J. Viola, Diplomats in Buckskin: A History of Indian Delegations in Washington City (Washington, DC, 1981), 77.
83. Cayenquiragoa speaking for the Canajoharie Mohawks, Council at Canajoharie (1763), in Sullivan, Papers of Sir William Johnson, 4:56, 58.
84. Even Iroquois clan mothers, who held considerable political influence, did not speak in councils. Joseph François Lafitau wrote of how Iroquois clan mothers had the authority to promote and demote chiefs to represent their clans, to encourage warriors to go to war or refrain from war, and in general to serve as "the arbiters of peace and war." However, it was male chiefs who acted and spoke in the public sphere of council diplomacy and male warriors who went to war. According to Lafitau, men "represent[ed] and aid[ed] the women in the matters in which decorum does not permit the latter to appear or act." See his Customs of the American Indians Compared with the Customs of Primitive Times, ed. and tr. William N. Fenton and Elizabeth L. Moore, 2 vols. (Toronto, 1974-77), 2:99, 114, quote from 1:69. Natalie Zemon Davis argued that some northeastern Indian women may have found Christianity appealing because it gave them opportunities for speaking which they did not have in their own societies; see her essay "Iroquois Women, European Women," in Women, "Race," and Writing in the Early Modern Period, eds. Margo Hendricks and Patricia Parker (New York, 1994), 243-58, 350-61. The intersections of gender and speaking among contemporary Creeks are discussed in Amelia Rector Bell, "Separate People: Speaking of Creek Men and Women," American Anthropologist 92 (1990): 332-45.
85. Even Iroquois clan mothers, who held considerable political influence, did not speak in councils. Joseph François Lafitau wrote of how Iroquois clan mothers had the authority to promote and demote chiefs to represent their clans, to encourage warriors to go to war or refrain from war, and in general to serve as "the arbiters of peace and war." However, it was male chiefs who acted and spoke in the public sphere of council diplomacy and male warriors who went to war. According to Lafitau, men "represent[ed] and aid[ed] the women in the matters in which decorum does not permit the latter to appear or act." See his Customs of the American Indians Compared with the Customs of Primitive Times, ed. and tr. William N. Fenton and Elizabeth L. Moore, 2 vols. (Toronto, 1974-77), 2:99, 114, quote from 1:69. Natalie Zemon Davis argued that some northeastern Indian women may have found Christianity appealing because it gave them opportunities for speaking which they did not have in their own societies; see her essay "Iroquois Women, European Women," in Women, "Race," and Writing in the Early Modern Period, eds. Margo Hendricks and Patricia Parker (New York, 1994), 243-58, 350-61. The intersections of gender and speaking among contemporary Creeks are discussed in Amelia Rector Bell, "Separate People: Speaking of Creek Men and Women," American Anthropologist 92 (1990): 332-45.
86. Even Iroquois clan mothers, who held considerable political influence, did not speak in councils. Joseph François Lafitau wrote of how Iroquois clan mothers had the authority to promote and demote chiefs to represent their clans, to encourage warriors to go to war or refrain from war, and in general to serve as "the arbiters of peace and war." However, it was male chiefs who acted and spoke in the public sphere of council diplomacy and male warriors who went to war. According to Lafitau, men "represent[ed] and aid[ed] the women in the matters in which decorum does not permit the latter to appear or act." See his Customs of the American Indians Compared with the Customs of Primitive Times, ed. and tr. William N. Fenton and Elizabeth L. Moore, 2 vols. (Toronto, 1974-77), 2:99, 114, quote from 1:69. Natalie Zemon Davis argued that some northeastern Indian women may have found Christianity appealing because it gave them opportunities for speaking which they did not have in their own societies; see her essay "Iroquois Women, European Women," in Women, "Race," and Writing in the Early Modern Period, eds. Margo Hendricks and Patricia Parker (New York, 1994), 243-58, 350-61. The intersections of gender and speaking among contemporary Creeks are discussed in Amelia Rector Bell, "Separate People: Speaking of Creek Men and Women," American Anthropologist 92 (1990): 332-45.
87. Even Iroquois clan mothers, who held considerable political influence, did not speak in councils. Joseph François Lafitau wrote of how Iroquois clan mothers had the authority to promote and demote chiefs to represent their clans, to encourage warriors to go to war or refrain from war, and in general to serve as "the arbiters of peace and war." However, it was male chiefs who acted and spoke in the public sphere of council diplomacy and male warriors who went to war. According to Lafitau, men "represent[ed] and aid[ed] the women in the matters in which decorum does not permit the latter to appear or act." See his Customs of the American Indians Compared with the Customs of Primitive Times, ed. and tr. William N. Fenton and Elizabeth L. Moore, 2 vols. (Toronto, 1974-77), 2:99, 114, quote from 1:69. Natalie Zemon Davis argued that some northeastern Indian women may have found Christianity appealing because it gave them opportunities for speaking which they did not have in their own societies; see her essay "Iroquois Women, European Women," in Women, "Race," and Writing in the Early Modern Period, eds. Margo Hendricks and Patricia Parker (New York, 1994), 243-58, 350-61. The intersections of gender and speaking among contemporary Creeks are discussed in Amelia Rector Bell, "Separate People: Speaking of Creek Men and Women," American Anthropologist 92 (1990): 332-45.
88. See, for example, the speech by an unidentified Cherokee speaker, speaking for the Cherokee Women to the Women of the Six Nations, Council at Fort Johnson (1758), in Sullivan, Papers of Sir William Johnson, 9:950.
89. A Seneca women's speech to women from western nations, probably delivered by a male speaker, asked them to encourage their warriors to join them in war; see "Journal of Indian Affairs," 11 July 1963, in ibid., 10:770. Tuscarora women, in a speech given by Aneus (male), "most earnestly recommend[ed]" their fellow Iroquois to act "the Manly part" and assist the English in war; see "Journal of Indian Congress," 5 December 1763, in ibid., 10:945.
90. A Seneca women's speech to women from western nations, probably delivered by a male speaker, asked them to encourage their warriors to join them in war; see "Journal of Indian Affairs," 11 July 1963, in ibid., 10:770. Tuscarora women, in a speech given by Aneus (male), "most earnestly recommend[ed]" their fellow Iroquois to act "the Manly part" and assist the English in war; see "Journal of Indian Congress," 5 December 1763, in ibid., 10:945.
91. Williams, Adair's History, 275.
92. Bienville to Maurepas, 30 September 1734, and Diron d'Artaguette to Maurepas, 17 March 1735, in Rowland and Sanders, Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 1:241, 245; Candler, Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 21:204.
93. Bienville to Maurepas, 30 September 1734, and Diron d'Artaguette to Maurepas, 17 March 1735, in Rowland and Sanders, Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 1:241, 245; Candler, Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 21:204.
94. Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 68.
95. This message came from a council of the Cayugas via Shickalemy, but it was unclear to the English whether the Cayugas were speaking for themselves or passing along a message from the Six Nations' general council at Onondaga. In Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 5:284.
96. George Croghan's speech to Ohio Indians, in ibid., 5:288.
97. Hendrick speaking for the Six Nations, in ibid., 6:81.
98. Williams, Adair's History, 463.
99. Saluy's Speech to His Excellency Governor Boon, 26 January 1764, British Public Record Office, C.O. 323.17.172., in microfilm collection indexed in William L. Anderson and James A. Lewis, A Guide to Cherokee Documents in Foreign Archives (Metuchen, NJ, 1983), and available from Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, North Carolina.
100. In Governor Blount to Secretary of War, 8 November 1792, American State Papers. Indian Affairs, 2 vols. (Washington, DC, 1832), 1:329. Also see William Glover (Chickasaw) to General Robertson, 29 April 1793, American State Papers, 1:456.
101. In Governor Blount to Secretary of War, 8 November 1792, American State Papers. Indian Affairs, 2 vols. (Washington, DC, 1832), 1:329. Also see William Glover (Chickasaw) to General Robertson, 29 April 1793, American State Papers, 1:456.
102. Ludovick Grant to Governor Glen, 29 April 1755, in McDowell, Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 2:52-53.
103. Raymond Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 8 December 1756, in ibid., 2:264; "Colonel Chicken's Journal to the Cherokees, 1725," in Mereness, Travels in the American Colonies, 147-48. Also see William Johnson's speech to the Six Nations, "Show yourselves Men & Friends to the English by your Actions." Council at Fort Johnson (1758), in Sullivan, Papers of Sir William Johnson, 10:13.
104. Raymond Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 8 December 1756, in ibid., 2:264; "Colonel Chicken's Journal to the Cherokees, 1725," in Mereness, Travels in the American Colonies, 147-48. Also see William Johnson's speech to the Six Nations, "Show yourselves Men & Friends to the English by your Actions." Council at Fort Johnson (1758), in Sullivan, Papers of Sir William Johnson, 10:13.
105. Raymond Demere to Governor Lyttelton, 8 December 1756, in ibid., 2:264; "Colonel Chicken's Journal to the Cherokees, 1725," in Mereness, Travels in the American Colonies, 147-48. Also see William Johnson's speech to the Six Nations, "Show yourselves Men & Friends to the English by your Actions." Council at Fort Johnson (1758), in Sullivan, Papers of Sir William Johnson, 10:13.
106. Williams, Adair's History, 275.
107. Indians from the Upper Part of the River in council with Governor Benjamin Fletcher (1693), in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 1:373.
108. For more on Quaker advocacy of peace and Quaker-Indian relations on the eve of the Seven Years War, see Richard Bauman, For the Reputation of Truth: Politics, Religion and Conflict among the Pennsylvania Quakers, 1750-1800 (Baltimore, MD, 1971); Sydney V. James, A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America (Cambridge, MA, 1963).
109. For more on Quaker advocacy of peace and Quaker-Indian relations on the eve of the Seven Years War, see Richard Bauman, For the Reputation of Truth: Politics, Religion and Conflict among the Pennsylvania Quakers, 1750-1800 (Baltimore, MD, 1971); Sydney V. James, A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America (Cambridge, MA, 1963).
110. Old Brims quoted in "Tobias Fitch's Journal to the Creeks," 208-9.
111. Williams, Adair's History, 334, 347.
112. John Stuart, Council at Augusta (1763), in Walter Clark, ed., The State Records of North Carolina, vol. 11 (Winston, NC, 1895), 181.
113. Henry Laurens to Joseph Clay, 2 September 1777, in Philip M. Hamer, ed., The Papers of Henry Laurens, 14 vols. (Columbia, SC, 1968-94), 11:483.
114. Isaac Motte to Henry Laurens, 19 September 1775, in ibid., 10:409.
115. See the special issue by Mary Peace and Vincent Quinn, eds., "Luxurious Sexualities: Effeminacy, Consumption, and the Body Politic in Eighteenth-Century Representation," Textual Practice 11 (winter 1997); Michèle Cohen, Fashioning Masculinity: National Identity and Language in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1996); Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (New York, 1995).
116. See the special issue by Mary Peace and Vincent Quinn, eds., "Luxurious Sexualities: Effeminacy, Consumption, and the Body Politic in Eighteenth-Century Representation," Textual Practice 11 (winter 1997); Michèle Cohen, Fashioning Masculinity: National Identity and Language in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1996); Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (New York, 1995).
117. See the special issue by Mary Peace and Vincent Quinn, eds., "Luxurious Sexualities: Effeminacy, Consumption, and the Body Politic in Eighteenth-Century Representation," Textual Practice 11 (winter 1997); Michèle Cohen, Fashioning Masculinity: National Identity and Language in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1996); Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (New York, 1995).
118. Brown, "Anglo-Algonquin Gender Frontier; see also Ferling, Wilderness of Miseries, a rich repository of information on English colonists' ideas about war, with many examples of English writers equating Indian warfare with the brutality of animals and labeling it "unmanly" (35) to describing instances of how English soldiers who fled from battle were later dressed in women's clothes and flogged (116-17). Sherry L. Smith noted a similar tension in the attitudes of nineteenth-century U.S. military officers, who admired Indian warriors as the epitome of their own masculine ideals but who at the same time denigrated Indians with descriptive language heavily laden with animal imagery; see Smith, The View from Officers' Row: Army Perceptions of Western Indians (Tucson, AZ, 1990), chap. 3.
119. Brown, "Anglo-Algonquin Gender Frontier; see also Ferling, Wilderness of Miseries, a rich repository of information on English colonists' ideas about war, with many examples of English writers equating Indian warfare with the brutality of animals and labeling it "unmanly" (35) to describing instances of how English soldiers who fled from battle were later dressed in women's clothes and flogged (116-17). Sherry L. Smith noted a similar tension in the attitudes of nineteenth-century U.S. military officers, who admired Indian warriors as the epitome of their own masculine ideals but who at the same time denigrated Indians with descriptive language heavily laden with animal imagery; see Smith, The View from Officers' Row: Army Perceptions of Western Indians (Tucson, AZ, 1990), chap. 3.
120. Brown, "Anglo-Algonquin Gender Frontier; see also Ferling, Wilderness of Miseries, a rich repository of information on English colonists' ideas about war, with many examples of English writers equating Indian warfare with the brutality of animals and labeling it "unmanly" (35) to describing instances of how English soldiers who fled from battle were later dressed in women's clothes and flogged (116-17). Sherry L. Smith noted a similar tension in the attitudes of nineteenth-century U.S. military officers, who admired Indian warriors as the epitome of their own masculine ideals but who at the same time denigrated Indians with descriptive language heavily laden with animal imagery; see Smith, The View from Officers' Row: Army Perceptions of Western Indians (Tucson, AZ, 1990), chap. 3.
121. Carl F. Klinck and James J. Talman, eds., The Journal of Major John Norton, 1816 (Toronto, 1970), 85.
122. Nutsawi, in response to questions asked by Daniel Butrick, John Howard Payne Papers, Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois, vol. 3, p. 8.
123. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 35.
124. Fred Gearing, Priests and Warriors: Social Structures for Cherokee Politics in the 18th Century, American Anthropological Association Memoir 93 (October 1962); Charles Hudson, The Southeastern Indians (Knoxville, TN, 1976).
125. Fred Gearing, Priests and Warriors: Social Structures for Cherokee Politics in the 18th Century, American Anthropological Association Memoir 93 (October 1962); Charles Hudson, The Southeastern Indians (Knoxville, TN, 1976).
126. Richard White, in The Middle Ground (84-85), discusses the meanings of "father" and "children" in diplomacy between the French and predominantly patrilineal Algonquian-speaking Indian groups in the Great Lakes region, such as the Ottawas. The Mahican Indians, Algonquian-speaking but having a matrilineal clan system akin to their Iroquois neighbors, were the only tribe within the circle of the Iroquois-English alliance to address English colonial governors as "fathers." See "Propositions made by the River Indians & Skachkook Indians to his Excellency Robert Hunter," Council at Albany (1710) and "River Indians," Council at Albany (1722), in E. B. O'Callaghan, Documents Relative, 5:219, 663. For a comparative survey of Indian social organization in the Northeast, from the Great Lakes to Maine and Virginia, see Bruce G. Trigger, "Cultural Unity and Diversity," in Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger, vol. 15, Handbook of North American Indians, gnl. ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC, 1978), 798-804.
127. Richard White, in The Middle Ground (84-85), discusses the meanings of "father" and "children" in diplomacy between the French and predominantly patrilineal Algonquian-speaking Indian groups in the Great Lakes region, such as the Ottawas. The Mahican Indians, Algonquian-speaking but having a matrilineal clan system akin to their Iroquois neighbors, were the only tribe within the circle of the Iroquois-English alliance to address English colonial governors as "fathers." See "Propositions made by the River Indians & Skachkook Indians to his Excellency Robert Hunter," Council at Albany (1710) and "River Indians," Council at Albany (1722), in E. B. O'Callaghan, Documents Relative, 5:219, 663. For a comparative survey of Indian social organization in the Northeast, from the Great Lakes to Maine and Virginia, see Bruce G. Trigger, "Cultural Unity and Diversity," in Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger, vol. 15, Handbook of North American Indians, gnl. ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC, 1978), 798-804.
128. Richard White, in The Middle Ground (84-85), discusses the meanings of "father" and "children" in diplomacy between the French and predominantly patrilineal Algonquian-speaking Indian groups in the Great Lakes region, such as the Ottawas. The Mahican Indians, Algonquian-speaking but having a matrilineal clan system akin to their Iroquois neighbors, were the only tribe within the circle of the Iroquois-English alliance to address English colonial governors as "fathers." See "Propositions made by the River Indians & Skachkook Indians to his Excellency Robert Hunter," Council at Albany (1710) and "River Indians," Council at Albany (1722), in E. B. O'Callaghan, Documents Relative, 5:219, 663. For a comparative survey of Indian social organization in the Northeast, from the Great Lakes to Maine and Virginia, see Bruce G. Trigger, "Cultural Unity and Diversity," in Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger, vol. 15, Handbook of North American Indians, gnl. ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC, 1978), 798-804.
129. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 34.
130. King Hagler speaking for the Catawbas, in "A Treaty between Virginia and the Catawbas and Cherokees, 1756," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 13 (1906): 241.
131. Richard Riley, Clerk to the Cherokee Deputation in Washington, to the President of the United States, 22 November 1817, in American State Papers, 2:146. John Norton told the same story, as he heard it from the Cherokees he visited in 1809, in Klinck and Talman, Journal of Major John Norton, 46.
132. Richard Riley, Clerk to the Cherokee Deputation in Washington, to the President of the United States, 22 November 1817, in American State Papers, 2:146. John Norton told the same story, as he heard it from the Cherokees he visited in 1809, in Klinck and Talman, Journal of Major John Norton, 46.
133. O'Callaghan, Documents Relative, 8:44.
134. Trader Thomas Nairne described a similar system within southeastern Indian confederacies as towns addressed other towns using kin terms, with age denoting relations of deference; yet each town retained its autonomy. See Alexander Moore, ed., Nairne's Muskhogean Journals: The 1708 Expedition to the Mississippi River (Jackson, MS, 1988), 62-63. The Shawnee prophet, in discussing the role of kin titles in diplomacy, denied that tribes were ranked but then placed the Shawnees as second or third, after the Wyandots and Six Nations. He did not deny variable statuses on the council grounds but meant that the ranking was not fixed and agreed upon by everybody. See Vernon Kinietz and Erminie W. Voegelin, eds., Shawnese Traditions: C. C. Trowbridge's Account (Ann Arbor, MI, 1939), 55.
135. Trader Thomas Nairne described a similar system within southeastern Indian confederacies as towns addressed other towns using kin terms, with age denoting relations of deference; yet each town retained its autonomy. See Alexander Moore, ed., Nairne's Muskhogean Journals: The 1708 Expedition to the Mississippi River (Jackson, MS, 1988), 62-63. The Shawnee prophet, in discussing the role of kin titles in diplomacy, denied that tribes were ranked but then placed the Shawnees as second or third, after the Wyandots and Six Nations. He did not deny variable statuses on the council grounds but meant that the ranking was not fixed and agreed upon by everybody. See Vernon Kinietz and Erminie W. Voegelin, eds., Shawnese Traditions: C. C. Trowbridge's Account (Ann Arbor, MI, 1939), 55.
136. "Colonel Chicken's Journal," 127.
137. Ibid., 128, 129.
138. Jacobs, Appalachian Indian Frontier: Edmond Atkin Report, 75.
139. Gordon J. Schochet, Patriarchalism in Political Thought: The Authoritarian Family and Political Speculation and Attitudes, Especially in Seventeenth-Century England (New York, 1975). Joan Thirsk, "Younger Sons in the Seventeenth Century," History 54 (1969): 358-77.
140. Gordon J. Schochet, Patriarchalism in Political Thought: The Authoritarian Family and Political Speculation and Attitudes, Especially in Seventeenth-Century England (New York, 1975). Joan Thirsk, "Younger Sons in the Seventeenth Century," History 54 (1969): 358-77.
141. "Alexander Cuming journal," in Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Early Travels in the Tennessee Country, 1540-1800 (Johnson City, TN, 1928), 126. Also see his interpreter's account in Ludovick Grant, "Historical Relation of Facts Delivered by Ludovick Grant, Indian Trader, to His Excellency the Governor of South Carolina," South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 10 (1909): 54-68, esp. 56-57.
142. "Alexander Cuming journal," in Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Early Travels in the Tennessee Country, 1540-1800 (Johnson City, TN, 1928), 126. Also see his interpreter's account in Ludovick Grant, "Historical Relation of Facts Delivered by Ludovick Grant, Indian Trader, to His Excellency the Governor of South Carolina," South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 10 (1909): 54-68, esp. 56-57.
143. William L. Saunders, ed., The Colonial Records of North Carolina, 10 vols. (Raleigh, NC, 1886-1890), 3:129, 132.
144. This account is most accessible in Albert S. Gatschet, A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians, with a Linguistic, Historic and Ethnographic Introduction, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1884), 2:244-51, quoted on pp. 246-47. See also Candler, Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 20:53, 381-84, 398.
145. This account is most accessible in Albert S. Gatschet, A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians, with a Linguistic, Historic and Ethnographic Introduction, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1884), 2:244-51, quoted on pp. 246-47. See also Candler, Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 20:53, 381-84, 398.
146. Samuel Eveleigh to Herman Vereist, 16 October 1736, in Candler, Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, 21:214.
147. Governor of Georgia, Council at Savannah (1759) and Tupahatkee speaking for the Creeks, Council at Savannah (1760), in ibid., 8:169, 293.
148. Emistesegoe, speaking for the Creeks, Council at Savannah (1768) and Lower Creeks to Governor of Georgia, 17 March 1772, in ibid., 10:568, 12:316.
149. Emistesegoe, speaking for the Creeks, Council at Savannah (1768) and Lower Creeks to Governor of Georgia, 17 March 1772, in ibid., 10:568, 12:316.
150. Treaty of Augusta (1763), in Clark, State Records of North Carolina, 11:179.
151. Captain Aleck, speaking for the Cussitows (Creeks), Council at Picolata (1765) in James W. Covington, ed., The British Meet the Seminoles: Negotiations between British Authorities in East Florida and the Indians: 1763-68, Contributions of the Florida State Museum, Social Sciences no. 7 (Gainesville, FL, 1961), 29. Also see speech of the Mortar, Council at Pensacola (1765), in Rowland, Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion, 204.
152. Captain Aleck, speaking for the Cussitows (Creeks), Council at Picolata (1765) in James W. Covington, ed., The British Meet the Seminoles: Negotiations between British Authorities in East Florida and the Indians: 1763-68, Contributions of the Florida State Museum, Social Sciences no. 7 (Gainesville, FL, 1961), 29. Also see speech of the Mortar, Council at Pensacola (1765), in Rowland, Mississippi Provincial Archives: English Dominion, 204.
153. Canassatego, Council at Lancaster (1744) in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 4:707-8.
154. Sindachsegie speaking for the Mohawks, Dekarachqua for the other four Iroquois nations, Andros for New York, Council at Albany (1688), in O'Callaghan, Documents Relative, 3:558-60.
155. Thomas King, Council at Lancaster (1762), in Hazard, Minutes of the Provincial Council, 8:755; also see p. 745.
156. Kathryn E. Holland Braund, Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815 (Lincoln, NE, 1993); Perdue, Cherokee Women; and Hatley, Dividing Paths, detail the economic changes among southeastern Indians in the eighteenth century, with substantial attention paid to gender dynamics.
157. Kathryn E. Holland Braund, Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815 (Lincoln, NE, 1993); Perdue, Cherokee Women; and Hatley, Dividing Paths, detail the economic changes among southeastern Indians in the eighteenth century, with substantial attention paid to gender dynamics.
158. Kathryn E. Holland Braund, Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815 (Lincoln, NE, 1993); Perdue, Cherokee Women; and Hatley, Dividing Paths, detail the economic changes among southeastern Indians in the eighteenth century, with substantial attention paid to gender dynamics.
159. White, Middle Ground, 84-85, or chap. 2 generally, since it focuses on a myriad of such misunderstandings.
160. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago, 1980) and George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago, 1987). Also see Rodney Needham, ed., Right and Left: Essays on Dual Symbolic Classification (Chicago, 1973).
161. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago, 1980) and George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago, 1987). Also see Rodney Needham, ed., Right and Left: Essays on Dual Symbolic Classification (Chicago, 1973).
162. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago, 1980) and George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago, 1987). Also see Rodney Needham, ed., Right and Left: Essays on Dual Symbolic Classification (Chicago, 1973).