The heroic response to terror: The case of Oklahoma City

Public Personnel Management

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 617-634

  Lewis, Carol W ^a   Tenzer, Morton J ^a   Harrison, Tony ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033236761     PISSN: 00910260     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009102609902800409     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. 1 The authors wish to express appreciation to the many people in Oklahoma City who generously provided interviews and materials, the University of Connecticut's Graduate Research Foundation for financial support, and Ingrid Espinosa for her zealous and thoughtful research assistance This article was originally prepared for delivery at the Fourth Jerusalem International Conference on Ethics in the Public Service, June 1999.
2. 2 American Psychological Association, "Oklahoma City Bombing Task Force Recommends Changes in Coordination and Long-term Care Policies," press release, Aug 8, 1997, via Internet at www.apa.org/ releases/ disaster/ html.
3. 3 American Psychological Association, "Final Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force on the Mental Health Response to the Oklahoma City Bombing," (Washington, DC: APA, 1997), 9
4. 4 English, Paul, "Preliminary Estimate Puts Bomb Losses at $652 Million," Oklahoman, May 19, 1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; and "Governor, Finance Director Release Bomb Damage Estimates," Office of Governor Frank Keating, May 18, 1995.
5. 4 English, Paul, "Preliminary Estimate Puts Bomb Losses at $652 Million," Oklahoman, May 19, 1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; and "Governor, Finance Director Release Bomb Damage Estimates," Office of Governor Frank Keating, May 18, 1995.
6. Lewis, Carol W, and Harrison, Tony, "In the Iconic Service of Terror: Selected Impacts and Outcomes of the Bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City," draft manuscript, Winter 1999; and Lewis, Carol W., Tenzer, Morton J. and Harrison, Tony, "Ethical Issues of the Response and Recovery Phases of Domestic Terrorism: The Case of Oklahoma City," paper prepared for delivery at the Fourth Jerusalem International Conference on Ethics in the Public Service, June 1999.
7. Lewis, Carol W, and Harrison, Tony, "In the Iconic Service of Terror: Selected Impacts and Outcomes of the Bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City," draft manuscript, Winter 1999; and Lewis, Carol W., Tenzer, Morton J. and Harrison, Tony, "Ethical Issues of the Response and Recovery Phases of Domestic Terrorism: The Case of Oklahoma City," paper prepared for delivery at the Fourth Jerusalem International Conference on Ethics in the Public Service, June 1999.
8. 6 Waugh, William L Jr., and Hy, Ronald J., "Introduction to Emergency Management," in Handbook of Emergency Management, edited by Waugh, William L. Jr. and Hy, Ronald J., (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1990), 1.
9. 7 May, Peter, "FEMA's Role in Emergency Management: Examining Recent Experience," Public Administration Review, Vol 45, January 1985, 46 The author refers specifically to the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
10. 8 Marrs, Gary B, Testimony at Hearing of the Military Research and Development Subcom-mittee, US House of Representatives Committee on National Security, February 28, 1997, via Internet at www.house.gov/hasc/testimony/ 105thcongress/97-2-28Marrs.htm. The author was Fire Chief in Oklahoma City during the rescue operation. Ironically, the emergency personnel first at the bomb site were four Oklahoma City Police Department (OCPD) officers who were in the nearby Federal Courthouse as defendants in a civil rights suit alleging their use of excessive force while serving a search warrant. Owens, Ron, Oklahoma Justice, (Paducah, KY: Turner Publishing, 1995), 290.
11. 8 Marrs, Gary B, Testimony at Hearing of the Military Research and Development Subcom-mittee, US House of Representatives Committee on National Security, February 28, 1997, via Internet at www.house.gov/hasc/testimony/ 105thcongress/97-2-28Marrs.htm. The author was Fire Chief in Oklahoma City during the rescue operation. Ironically, the emergency personnel first at the bomb site were four Oklahoma City Police Department (OCPD) officers who were in the nearby Federal Courthouse as defendants in a civil rights suit alleging their use of excessive force while serving a search warrant. Owens, Ron, Oklahoma Justice, (Paducah, KY: Turner Publishing, 1995), 290.
12. 9 The ethics code of many professional organizations such as the American Society for Public Administration, the International City and County Management Association, the Government Finance Officers Association, and others affirm professional competence as a principle or duty of professional ethics.
13. 10 US Federal Emergency Management Agency, "Disaster Activity, Jan. 1, 1995-Oct. 27, 1995," (1995), via Internet at www.fema.gov/library/cy95.htm.
14. 11 US Federal Emergency Management Agency, "Major Disaster Declarations, January 1, 1972-December 31, 1997," (FEMA News Room, April 15, 1998), via Internet at www.fema.gov/library/diz72-98.htm.
15. 12 City of Oklahoma City, Official Statement for General Obligation Bonds, March 5, 1996, 7.
16. 13 US Congress, Hearing of the Military Research and Development Subcommittee, US House of Representatives Committee on National Security, Federal Response to Domestic Terrorism Involving Weapons of Mass Destruction, Counter-Terrorism Research and Development Program. February 28, 1997, 2, 7.
17. 14 IBID, 5.
18. 15 Fiedler, Tom, "Mayor's Account of Tragedy Draws Tears From Colleagues," Oklahoman, June 20, 1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; and reiterated in author's interview with Ron Norick, Mayor of Oklahoma City during the operation, Oklahoma City, June 9, 1998.
19. 15 Fiedler, Tom, "Mayor's Account of Tragedy Draws Tears From Colleagues," Oklahoman, June 20, 1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; and reiterated in author's interview with Ron Norick, Mayor of Oklahoma City during the operation, Oklahoma City, June 9, 1998.
20. 16 City of Oklahoma City, Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building Bombing, April 19, 1995, Final Report, (Stillwater, OK: Fire Protection Publications, 1996), ix.
21. 17 Hansen, Jon, Oklahoma Rescue, (New York: Ballantine Books, 1995), 14. The author was Assistant Fire Chief in Oklahoma City during the rescue operation.
22. 18 Oklahoma City, Final Report, 394.
23. 19 Because there was no social breakdown, one sociological perspective on disaster and recovery raises questions about whether the bombing constitutes a disaster in a sociological sense. Bates, Frederick L, and Peacock, Walter Gillis, "Long Term Recovery," International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, Vol 7, Nov. 1989, 349-365. A contrary view is that the collapse of behavioral norms is part of the disaster mythology and "the best within us is usually exhibited as we become much more altruistic." Fischer, Henry W., III, "What Emergency Management Officials Should Know to Enhance Mitigation and Effective Disaster Response," Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, Vol 4, Dec. 1996, 207-8.
24. 19 Because there was no social breakdown, one sociological perspective on disaster and recovery raises questions about whether the bombing constitutes a disaster in a sociological sense. Bates, Frederick L, and Peacock, Walter Gillis, "Long Term Recovery," International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, Vol 7, Nov. 1989, 349-365. A contrary view is that the collapse of behavioral norms is part of the disaster mythology and "the best within us is usually exhibited as we become much more altruistic." Fischer, Henry W., III, "What Emergency Management Officials Should Know to Enhance Mitigation and Effective Disaster Response," Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, Vol 4, Dec. 1996, 207-8.
25. 20 Princeton Survey Research Associates/Newsweek Poll, national adult survey conducted Oct 6-9, 1995.
26. 21 Casteel, Chris, "Oklahomans Praised for Roles in Bombing," Oklahoman, Jan 24, 1996, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
27. 22 Clark, John, interview with Emergency Planning Coordinator of Oklahoma City's Police Department, Oklahoma City, June 9, 1998; O'Connor, Catherine, interview with Oklahoma City's Finance Director, Oklahoma City, June 9, 1998; and Norick interview
28. 23 Hansen, 1995; Kight, Marsha, compiled by, Forever Changed, (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1998); and Ross, Jim, and Myers, Paul, eds, We Will Never Forget, (Austin, TX: Eakin Press, 1996).
29. 23 Hansen, 1995; Kight, Marsha, compiled by, Forever Changed, (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1998); and Ross, Jim, and Myers, Paul, eds, We Will Never Forget, (Austin, TX: Eakin Press, 1996).
30. 23 Hansen, 1995; Kight, Marsha, compiled by, Forever Changed, (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1998); and Ross, Jim, and Myers, Paul, eds, We Will Never Forget, (Austin, TX: Eakin Press, 1996).
31. 24 Cole, Deborah, and Demoss, Daniel, eds, Precious Memories...The Healing Continues, (Yukon, OK: Heartworks Publishing, 1995), 10, 31; and Wall, Carolyn D., ed., Braced Against the Wind, (Tulsa, OK: Council Oak Books, 1995), 32.
32. 24 Cole, Deborah, and Demoss, Daniel, eds, Precious Memories...The Healing Continues, (Yukon, OK: Heartworks Publishing, 1995), 10, 31; and Wall, Carolyn D., ed., Braced Against the Wind, (Tulsa, OK: Council Oak Books, 1995), 32.
33. 25 Oklahoma City Police Department, Procedures Manual, (Oklahoma City, OK: undated), procedure 16450, emphasis added.
34. 26 Owen, Penny, "Murrah Rescue Earns 3 Medals," Oklahoman, May 8, 1996, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
35. 27 Oklahoma City Police Department, Procedures Manual, emphasis in original.
36. 28 Klinka, Karen, "Medical Society to Receive Medal," Oklahoman, May 30, 1996, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
37. 29 "Patriotic Rewards," Oklahoman, April 1, 1998, via Internet at wwwarchives.oklahoman.com.
38. 30 English, Paul, "Keating Honors Workers Who Helped Bomb Victims," Oklahoman, Aug 29, 1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
39. 31 In April 1998, Attorney General Janet Reno presented eight Crime Victim Service Awards for rescue and recovery activities to individuals and organizations, including: a crisis intervention organization, Project Heartland; the Critical Incident Workshops Group of police and fire chaplains and chief of chaplains, Col Jack Poe of the OCPD; and several other groups and individuals who provided assistance and support for victims and witnesses during the terrorists' trials. Others involved with the trial also received awards and, in July 1998 at a Justice Department ceremony, Reno honored 178 participants in the investigation and prosecution of the Oklahoma bombing case. "Bombing Rescuers, Others Honored - Attorney General Awards Those Who Aided Victims," Oklahoman, April 23, 1998, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; Boczkiewicz, Robert E., "Bombing Trial Work Honored," Oklahoman, March 28, 1998, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; and US Department of Justice, "Attorney General Janet Reno Honors 178 at Justice Department Ceremony" (Washington, DC: press release of July 8, 1998), via Internet at www.usdoj.gov/opa/pr/1998/July/316ag.html.
40. 31 In April 1998, Attorney General Janet Reno presented eight Crime Victim Service Awards for rescue and recovery activities to individuals and organizations, including: a crisis intervention organization, Project Heartland; the Critical Incident Workshops Group of police and fire chaplains and chief of chaplains, Col Jack Poe of the OCPD; and several other groups and individuals who provided assistance and support for victims and witnesses during the terrorists' trials. Others involved with the trial also received awards and, in July 1998 at a Justice Department ceremony, Reno honored 178 participants in the investigation and prosecution of the Oklahoma bombing case. "Bombing Rescuers, Others Honored - Attorney General Awards Those Who Aided Victims," Oklahoman, April 23, 1998, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; Boczkiewicz, Robert E., "Bombing Trial Work Honored," Oklahoman, March 28, 1998, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; and US Department of Justice, "Attorney General Janet Reno Honors 178 at Justice Department Ceremony" (Washington, DC: press release of July 8, 1998), via Internet at www.usdoj.gov/opa/pr/1998/July/316ag.html.
41. 31 In April 1998, Attorney General Janet Reno presented eight Crime Victim Service Awards for rescue and recovery activities to individuals and organizations, including: a crisis intervention organization, Project Heartland; the Critical Incident Workshops Group of police and fire chaplains and chief of chaplains, Col Jack Poe of the OCPD; and several other groups and individuals who provided assistance and support for victims and witnesses during the terrorists' trials. Others involved with the trial also received awards and, in July 1998 at a Justice Department ceremony, Reno honored 178 participants in the investigation and prosecution of the Oklahoma bombing case. "Bombing Rescuers, Others Honored - Attorney General Awards Those Who Aided Victims," Oklahoman, April 23, 1998, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; Boczkiewicz, Robert E., "Bombing Trial Work Honored," Oklahoman, March 28, 1998, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com; and US Department of Justice, "Attorney General Janet Reno Honors 178 at Justice Department Ceremony" (Washington, DC: press release of July 8, 1998), via Internet at www.usdoj.gov/opa/pr/1998/July/316ag.html.
42. 32 See note 17, herein
43. 33 Lewis and Harrison, 1999, 4
44. 34 Hansen, 1995; Kight, 1996; Jones, Robin, with Dengler, Sandy, Where Was God at 9:02 AM.?, (Nashville, TN.: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995); and Ross and Myers.
45. 34 Hansen, 1995; Kight, 1996; Jones, Robin, with Dengler, Sandy, Where Was God at 9:02 AM.?, (Nashville, TN.: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995); and Ross and Myers.
46. 34 Hansen, 1995; Kight, 1996; Jones, Robin, with Dengler, Sandy, Where Was God at 9:02 AM.?, (Nashville, TN.: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995); and Ross and Myers.
47. 35 English, Aug 29, 1995.
48. 36 Hogan, Gypsy, "Reactions Include Return to Family Values," Oklahoman, April 26, 1995, via Internet at wwwarchives.oklahoman.com.
49. 37 Goodsell, Charles T., The Case for Bureaucracy, Second Edition, (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1985); Ladd, Everett Carll, and Bowman, Karlyn H., What's Wrong, A Survey of American Satisfaction and Complaint, (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 1998). See also Schneider, Saundra K., "Governmental Response to Disasters: The Conflict Between Bureaucratic Procedures and Emergent Norms," Public Administration Review, Vol 52, March/April 1992, No #2, 135-145.
50. 37 Goodsell, Charles T., The Case for Bureaucracy, Second Edition, (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1985); Ladd, Everett Carll, and Bowman, Karlyn H., What's Wrong, A Survey of American Satisfaction and Complaint, (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 1998). See also Schneider, Saundra K., "Governmental Response to Disasters: The Conflict Between Bureaucratic Procedures and Emergent Norms," Public Administration Review, Vol 52, March/April 1992, No #2, 135-145.
51. 37 Goodsell, Charles T., The Case for Bureaucracy, Second Edition, (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1985); Ladd, Everett Carll, and Bowman, Karlyn H., What's Wrong, A Survey of American Satisfaction and Complaint, (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 1998). See also Schneider, Saundra K., "Governmental Response to Disasters: The Conflict Between Bureaucratic Procedures and Emergent Norms," Public Administration Review, Vol 52, March/April 1992, No #2, 135-145.
52. Ladd and Bowman, 1998, 137; Shaw, Greg M, et al., "Trends: Crime, The Police, and Civil Liberties," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol 62, Fall 1998, 414. "Roughly half of respondents in 1993 and 1994 Gallup surveys...rated the honesty and ethical standards of the police as 'very high' or 'high,' up from 37 percent in 1977." Warr, Mark, "Trends: Public Opinion on Crime and Punishment," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol 59, Summer 1995, 301.
53. Ladd and Bowman, 1998, 137; Shaw, Greg M, et al., "Trends: Crime, The Police, and Civil Liberties," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol 62, Fall 1998, 414. "Roughly half of respondents in 1993 and 1994 Gallup surveys...rated the honesty and ethical standards of the police as 'very high' or 'high,' up from 37 percent in 1977." Warr, Mark, "Trends: Public Opinion on Crime and Punishment," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol 59, Summer 1995, 301.
54. Ladd and Bowman, 1998, 137; Shaw, Greg M, et al., "Trends: Crime, The Police, and Civil Liberties," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol 62, Fall 1998, 414. "Roughly half of respondents in 1993 and 1994 Gallup surveys...rated the honesty and ethical standards of the police as 'very high' or 'high,' up from 37 percent in 1977." Warr, Mark, "Trends: Public Opinion on Crime and Punishment," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol 59, Summer 1995, 301.
55. 39 Warr, 302.
56. 40 The bombed federal building was owned by the General Services Administration, had housed 14 federal agencies, and was named for a federal judge. Speaking of anti-government violence, Oklahoma Governor Frank Keating noted, "The Murrah Building bombing was unique. It randomly targeted government workers along with the symbolic building." Keating, Frank, "Domestic Terrorism: A Leadership Response," Oklahoma City University Law Review, Vol 21, Summer/Fall 1996, 189.
57. 41 On confidence and trust in the federal government, its power and effectiveness, and related other issues, see Ladd and Bowman; National Election Studies, Table 5A.5 and 4A.1, 1998, via National Election Studies, 1998, via Internet at www.umich. edu/~nes/nesguide/toptables/tab5a-5.htm and www.umich.edu/~nes/nesguide/ toptables/tab4a-1.htm; and Pew Research Center, Deconstructing Distrust, (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, undated).
58. 42 Interviews with Clark and Poe.
59. 43 Author's interview with Sam Gonzales, Oklahoma City Police Chief during the operation, February 22, 1966.
60. 44 Hansen, Jon, telephone interview, September 28, 1998.
61. 45 Author's interviews with: Chanoch Bleier, Israeli National Police and survivor of terrorist bus bombing, Jerusalem, June 14, 1999; Mordechai Cohen, Chief Superintendent and advisor of mental health, Jerusalem, June 12, 1999; and Jay Levinson, Training Officer, Division of Identification and Forensic Science and formerly of Disaster Victim Identification Office, Jerusalem, June 14, 1999.
62. 46 President William Jefferson Clinton vowed the very day of the blast that the country will not tolerate terrorism and he "will not allow the people of this country to be intimidated by evil cowards." Clinton, William Jefferson, "Statement by the President, April 19, 1995," (Washington, DC: White House, Office of the Press Secretary).
63. 47 Cohen interview.
64. 48 American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV, Fourth Edition, (Washington, DC: APA), 424-429. See also Briere, John, Psychological Assessment of Adult Posttraumatic States, (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1997), and Journal of Traumatic Stress.
65. 48 American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV, Fourth Edition, (Washington, DC: APA), 424-429. See also Briere, John, Psychological Assessment of Adult Posttraumatic States, (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1997), and Journal of Traumatic Stress.
66. 49 McDonnell, Sharon, et al., "Long-Term Effects of Hurricane Andrew: Revisiting Mental Health Indicators," Disasters, Vol 19, 1995, No #3, 235-246, and Waugh, 297.
67. 50 Bleier, Cohen, and Levinson interviews.
68. 51 Cohen interview and American Psychological Association, Final Report, 24, 43-44.
69. Jones with Dengler, 107-108; Kight, 186; Peterson, Jan, "Healing Continues a Year After Bombing," APA Monitor (American Psychological Association 1996), via Internet; and Zizzo, David, "Rescuers Entering Gruesome Stage," Oklahoman, April 22,1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
70. Jones with Dengler, 107-108; Kight, 186; Peterson, Jan, "Healing Continues a Year After Bombing," APA Monitor (American Psychological Association 1996), via Internet; and Zizzo, David, "Rescuers Entering Gruesome Stage," Oklahoman, April 22,1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
71. Jones with Dengler, 107-108; Kight, 186; Peterson, Jan, "Healing Continues a Year After Bombing," APA Monitor (American Psychological Association 1996), via Internet; and Zizzo, David, "Rescuers Entering Gruesome Stage," Oklahoman, April 22,1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
72. Jones with Dengler, 107-108; Kight, 186; Peterson, Jan, "Healing Continues a Year After Bombing," APA Monitor (American Psychological Association 1996), via Internet; and Zizzo, David, "Rescuers Entering Gruesome Stage," Oklahoman, April 22,1995, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
73. 53 American Psychological Association, Final Report, 1.
74. 54 North, Carol S. et al. "Psychiatric Disorders Among Survivors of the Oklahoma City Bombing," Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 282, 1999, via Internet at www.ama-assn.org/sci-pubs/journals/archive/jama/vol_282/no.8/ oc81594a/htm.
75. 55 IBID, 2. As American Red Cross volunteers, almost 400 mental health professionals served each day over 18 days in Oklahoma City. IBID, 10. The American Psychological Association initiated its national Disaster Response Network in 1991 to work with relief agencies at disaster sites and provide pro bono services to victims and rescue and relief workers. American Psychological Association, "As the Oklahoma City Bombing Anniversary Date Nears Many May Reexperience the Emotional Effects of the Disaster," press release, 1996, via Internet at www.apa.org/releases.okc.html.
76. 56 Clark interview, and Hansen, 1995. 57 Peterson.
77. 58 American Psychological Association, press release, 1996.
78. 59 American Psychological Association, Final Report.
79. 60 US Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services, "Mental Health/Stress Management Lessons Learned, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, April 19, 1995," unpaginated, duplicated document, 1996.
80. 61 Cohen and Levinson interviews.
81. 62 American Psychological Association, "Even Keeping the Peace Can Lead to PTSD in Soldiers," APA Monitor, April 1997, via Internet.
82. 63 American Psychological Association, press release, 1996, Final Report, 1997, and "Oklahoma City's Trauma Lingers," NewsView Archives, April/May 1996, via Internet; Brus, Brian, "Grant Lets City Schools Hire Counselors for Bomb Stress," Oklahoman, Nov. 14, 1995, via Internet at www.achrives.oklahomanb/cim/cgi-bin/n...ilename=/archive/1995/11/14/1929214.txt; Kight; Medley, Robert, "Emotional Problems Prevalent," Oklahoman, March 20, 1996, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com/cgi-bin/n...ilename=/archive/1996/ 03/20/1942278.txt; Peterson; Poe interview; Ross and Myers; and Tassey, John, "Questions and Answers with John Tassey, Ph.D.," NewsViews, American Psychological Association, April/May 1996, via Internet at http://helping.apa. org/tassey.html.
83. 64 North et al.
84. 65 American Psychological Association, press release, 1997 and Final Report, 1997; and US Public Health Service.
85. 66 US Public Health Service.
86. 67 DeLaughter, Richard, and Marrs, Gary, "Request for funding support for law enforcement, fire and rescue personnel who responded to the Oklahoma City Bombing," Dec. 22, 1997, duplicated copy of grant proposal under the Anti-terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996.
87. 68 American Psychological Association, Final Report, 26, italics added.
88. 69 Bluethman, Angie, "City Police Department Awards Medals of Honor," Oklahoman, May 12, 1996, 7.
89. 70 Kight, 76.
90. 71 DeLaughter and Marrs, 1997.
91. 72 Mother Pleads Insanity - Nurse Claims Bombing Stress Led to Kids' Deaths, Oklahoman, April 24, 1998, via Internet at www.archives.oklahoman.com.
92. 73 Peggy Owen as quoted in Kight, 331.
93. 74 Wall, 15.
94. 75 Pear, Robert, "Insurance Plans Skirt Requirement on Mental Health," New York Times, Dec. 26, 1998, via Internet.
95. 76 US General Accounting Office. Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement National Policy and Strategy, GAO/NSIAD-97-254, (Washington DC: September 1997), 26, via Internet at www.ndcrt.org/ndcrt_nws/authors/ anthony_forster/1.gao.html.
96. 77 IBID, 5.
97. 78 IBID, 37-38 and see page 40 for functions and federal organizations in crisis and consequence management of domestic terrorist incident.
98. 79 Oklahoma City, Final Report, 367-368, and US Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1996.
99. 80 Clark interview; Clark, John, June 4, 1998 Memorandum, Chemical/Biological Information and Checklist; and Garrett, Terence M., "The Art of Judgment: A Case Study Organizational Analysis of the Oklahoma City Fire Department, April 19, 1995," Oklahoma Politics, Oct. 1996, 37.
100. 80 Clark interview; Clark, John, June 4, 1998 Memorandum, Chemical/Biological Information and Checklist; and Garrett, Terence M., "The Art of Judgment: A Case Study Organizational Analysis of the Oklahoma City Fire Department, April 19, 1995," Oklahoma Politics, Oct. 1996, 37.
101. 81 Hansen, 1995, 18.
102. 82 Clark memorandum.
103. 83 Oklahoma City, Final Report, 131.
104. 84 IBID, 131.
105. 85 Ross and Myers, 75.
106. 86 Others also remained in the area or at nearby sites, despite the evacuation order. Kight, 59.
107. 87 Hansen, 1995, 19.
108. 88 IBID, 19-20.