Organized crime: A social network approach

Crime, Law and Social Change

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 301-323

  McIllwain, Jeffrey Scott ^a  

^a SAN DIEGO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033233607     PISSN: 09254994     EISSN: 15730751     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1008354713842     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. John Landesco's ruminations on funerals can be found in Organized Crime in Chicago, Part III of the Illinois Crime Survey (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1929), 191-205.
2. More on Tom Lee, New York City's Chinatown and the early development of its underworld can be found in Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "From Tong War to Organized Crime: Revising the Historical Perception of Violence in Chinatown," Justice Quarterly 14, 1 (March 1997) and Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "Organizing Crime in Chinatown: New York City's Chinatown and the Social System of Organized Crime During the Progressive Era," (Ph.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, 1997).
3. More on Tom Lee, New York City's Chinatown and the early development of its underworld can be found in Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "From Tong War to Organized Crime: Revising the Historical Perception of Violence in Chinatown," Justice Quarterly 14, 1 (March 1997) and Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "Organizing Crime in Chinatown: New York City's Chinatown and the Social System of Organized Crime During the Progressive Era," (Ph.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, 1997).
4. For example, J.A. Barnes, "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish," Human Relations 1954, 7, 39-58; E. Bott, Family and Social Networks (London: Tavistock, 1957); J.C. Mitchell (ed.), Social Networks in Urbans Settings (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1969); and Jeremy Boissevain, "The Place of Non-Groups in the Social Sciences," Man 1968, 3, 542-556.
5. For example, J.A. Barnes, "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish," Human Relations 1954, 7, 39-58; E. Bott, Family and Social Networks (London: Tavistock, 1957); J.C. Mitchell (ed.), Social Networks in Urbans Settings (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1969); and Jeremy Boissevain, "The Place of Non-Groups in the Social Sciences," Man 1968, 3, 542-556.
6. For example, J.A. Barnes, "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish," Human Relations 1954, 7, 39-58; E. Bott, Family and Social Networks (London: Tavistock, 1957); J.C. Mitchell (ed.), Social Networks in Urbans Settings (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1969); and Jeremy Boissevain, "The Place of Non-Groups in the Social Sciences," Man 1968, 3, 542-556.
7. For example, J.A. Barnes, "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish," Human Relations 1954, 7, 39-58; E. Bott, Family and Social Networks (London: Tavistock, 1957); J.C. Mitchell (ed.), Social Networks in Urbans Settings (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1969); and Jeremy Boissevain, "The Place of Non-Groups in the Social Sciences," Man 1968, 3, 542-556.
8. Stanley Wasserman and Katherine Faust, Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994): 12-20, and Jeremy Boissevain, "Preface," in Jeremy Boissevain and J. Clyde Mitchell, Network Analysis: Studies in Human Interaction (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1973): vii-xiii.
9. Stanley Wasserman and Katherine Faust, Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994): 12-20, and Jeremy Boissevain, "Preface," in Jeremy Boissevain and J. Clyde Mitchell, Network Analysis: Studies in Human Interaction (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1973): vii-xiii.
10. All of the following material on social networks and social networking found in this section are from Wasserman and Faust, social Network Analysis: 12-20.
11. Alan A. Block, East Side-West Side: Organizing Crime in New York City, 1930-1950, 2nd ed., (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1994), 10; This system is hinted at in the previously published works of Solomon Korbin and Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin. Korbin studied delinquent subcultures in areas with high reports of delinquency. He posited that the "degree of integration" between underworld and upperworld actors in a community directly related to the form of delinquent subcultures in that community. Specifically, he maintained that if illegal activity was systematic and organized, and underworld leaders interacted on social, economic, and political levels with legitimate leaders of the community, commonality of purpose, goals, and security would develop between the two [Solomon Korbin, "The Conflict Values in Delinquency Areas," American Sociological Review 1951, 16, 653-661]. Basing their work in part on Korbin's, Cloward and Ohlin developed "differential opportunity" theory. This generally addresses "illegitimate opportunity structures," a set of illegitimate means to achieve societal goals. As part of this theory, they contended that a "criminal subculture" developed in fully integrated communities. This criminal subculture allows juveniles to serve almost as an apprentice group for adult-run organized crime concerns [Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin, Delinquency and opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (New York: Free Press, 1960)].
12. Alan A. Block, East Side-West Side: Organizing Crime in New York City, 1930-1950, 2nd ed., (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1994), 10; This system is hinted at in the previously published works of Solomon Korbin and Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin. Korbin studied delinquent subcultures in areas with high reports of delinquency. He posited that the "degree of integration" between underworld and upperworld actors in a community directly related to the form of delinquent subcultures in that community. Specifically, he maintained that if illegal activity was systematic and organized, and underworld leaders interacted on social, economic, and political levels with legitimate leaders of the community, commonality of purpose, goals, and security would develop between the two [Solomon Korbin, "The Conflict Values in Delinquency Areas," American Sociological Review 1951, 16, 653-661]. Basing their work in part on Korbin's, Cloward and Ohlin developed "differential opportunity" theory. This generally addresses "illegitimate opportunity structures," a set of illegitimate means to achieve societal goals. As part of this theory, they contended that a "criminal subculture" developed in fully integrated communities. This criminal subculture allows juveniles to serve almost as an apprentice group for adult-run organized crime concerns [Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin, Delinquency and opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (New York: Free Press, 1960)].
13. Alan A. Block, East Side-West Side: Organizing Crime in New York City, 1930-1950, 2nd ed., (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1994), 10; This system is hinted at in the previously published works of Solomon Korbin and Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin. Korbin studied delinquent subcultures in areas with high reports of delinquency. He posited that the "degree of integration" between underworld and upperworld actors in a community directly related to the form of delinquent subcultures in that community. Specifically, he maintained that if illegal activity was systematic and organized, and underworld leaders interacted on social, economic, and political levels with legitimate leaders of the community, commonality of purpose, goals, and security would develop between the two [Solomon Korbin, "The Conflict Values in Delinquency Areas," American Sociological Review 1951, 16, 653-661]. Basing their work in part on Korbin's, Cloward and Ohlin developed "differential opportunity" theory. This generally addresses "illegitimate opportunity structures," a set of illegitimate means to achieve societal goals. As part of this theory, they contended that a "criminal subculture" developed in fully integrated communities. This criminal subculture allows juveniles to serve almost as an apprentice group for adult-run organized crime concerns [Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin, Delinquency and opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (New York: Free Press, 1960)].
14. Block, East Side-West Side, 10-11.
15. Ibid.: 58.
16. Block asserted that continuity is the mark of the overall system. Yet the system can be disrupted for a variety of reasons. For example, a politician or police captain can be caught taking bribes from a prostitution or gambling enterprise. When this occurs, the system, with its ever fluid series of relationships binding upperworld and underworld actors together, adapts and survives [Ibid: 1].
17. Jay Albanese, Organized Crime in America, 3rd ed., (Cincinnati, OH: Anderson, 1996), 145.
18. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
19. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
20. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
21. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
22. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
23. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
24. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
25. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
26. Others include Jeremy Boissevain, "Patronage in Sicily," Man 1966, 1, 18-33; Jeremy Boissevain, "Poverty and Politics in a Sicilian Agro-Town," International Archieves of Ethnography 1960, 50, 198-236; Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973); Jane Schneider, "Family Patrimonies and Economic Behavior in Western Sicily," Anthropological Quarterly 1969, 42, 109-129; Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 1971, 10, 1-24; Peter Schneider, "Coalition Formation and Colonialism in Sicily," Archives Europeennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology) 1972, 13, 255-267; Peter Schneider, Jane Schneider, and Edward C. Hansen, "Modernization and Development: The Role of Regional Elites and Non-corporate Groups in the European Mediterranean," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1972, 14, 328-350; Sydel F. Silverman, "Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy," Ethnology 1965, 4, 172-189; and Paul Friedrich, "A Mexican Cacicazgo," Ethnology 1965, 4, 190-209.
27. "Genuardo" is a pseudonym for a real town in Sicily.
28. Anton Blok, The Mafia of a Silician Village, 1860-1960: A Study of Violent Peasant Entrepreneurs, (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1974), xxvii.
29. This approach is best symbolized by the inflaential work of Donald Cressey. Theft of a Nation: The Structure and Operations of Organized Crime in America, (New York: Harper & Row, 1969).
30. Charles Tilly, "Foreword," in Blok, The Mafia of Sicilian Village, (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1974). xiii.
31. Ibid.: xiii-xiv.
32. Ibid.: xiv.
33. Ibid.: xiv-xv.
34. Ibid.: xxviii.
35. Ibid.: xxix.
36. Norbert Elias and J.L. Scotson, The Established and the Outsiders: A Sociological Enquiry into Community Problems, (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1965), 11-12.
37. Ibid.: 21-22.
38. Stephan Thernstrom, "Notes on the Historical Study of Social Mobility," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1968, 10, 162.
39. Blok, Tthe Mafia of a Sicilian Village, xxx.
40. Ibid.: 1-9.
41. Ibid.: 1-9.
42. Ibid.: 9-10.
43. Ibid.: 12.
44. Willard H. Meyers III, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organised Crime in the East," Crime, Law and Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 24, 183. For additional assessments of guanxi as it relates to Chinese criminal enterprise, please see Douglas D. Daye, A Law Enforcement Sourcebook of Asian Crime and Cultures: Tactics and Mindsets (New York: CRC Press, 199); M. Cordell Hart, "Money and 'Guanxi': Keys to Understanding Crimes by Asians" (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 8 March 1996); Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer: Chinese Opium Smuggling Networks in and around San Diego during the 1910s," Transnational Organized Crime 4:2 (2000); Williard H. Meyers III, "Of Quinqing Qinshu, Guanxi, and Shetou: The Dynamic Elements of Chinese Irregular Population Movement," in Paul J. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling: Chinese Migrant Trafficking and the Challenge to America's Immigration Tradition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997); and Sheldon X. Zhang and Mark S. Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organization of Chinese Alien Smuggling," Crime, Law & Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 25, 1, 1-16.
45. Willard H. Meyers III, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organised Crime in the East," Crime, Law and Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 24, 183. For additional assessments of guanxi as it relates to Chinese criminal enterprise, please see Douglas D. Daye, A Law Enforcement Sourcebook of Asian Crime and Cultures: Tactics and Mindsets (New York: CRC Press, 199); M. Cordell Hart, "Money and 'Guanxi': Keys to Understanding Crimes by Asians" (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 8 March 1996); Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer: Chinese Opium Smuggling Networks in and around San Diego during the 1910s," Transnational Organized Crime 4:2 (2000); Williard H. Meyers III, "Of Quinqing Qinshu, Guanxi, and Shetou: The Dynamic Elements of Chinese Irregular Population Movement," in Paul J. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling: Chinese Migrant Trafficking and the Challenge to America's Immigration Tradition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997); and Sheldon X. Zhang and Mark S. Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organization of Chinese Alien Smuggling," Crime, Law & Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 25, 1, 1-16.
46. Willard H. Meyers III, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organised Crime in the East," Crime, Law and Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 24, 183. For additional assessments of guanxi as it relates to Chinese criminal enterprise, please see Douglas D. Daye, A Law Enforcement Sourcebook of Asian Crime and Cultures: Tactics and Mindsets (New York: CRC Press, 199); M. Cordell Hart, "Money and 'Guanxi': Keys to Understanding Crimes by Asians" (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 8 March 1996); Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer: Chinese Opium Smuggling Networks in and around San Diego during the 1910s," Transnational Organized Crime 4:2 (2000); Williard H. Meyers III, "Of Quinqing Qinshu, Guanxi, and Shetou: The Dynamic Elements of Chinese Irregular Population Movement," in Paul J. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling: Chinese Migrant Trafficking and the Challenge to America's Immigration Tradition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997); and Sheldon X. Zhang and Mark S. Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organization of Chinese Alien Smuggling," Crime, Law & Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 25, 1, 1-16.
47. Willard H. Meyers III, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organised Crime in the East," Crime, Law and Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 24, 183. For additional assessments of guanxi as it relates to Chinese criminal enterprise, please see Douglas D. Daye, A Law Enforcement Sourcebook of Asian Crime and Cultures: Tactics and Mindsets (New York: CRC Press, 199); M. Cordell Hart, "Money and 'Guanxi': Keys to Understanding Crimes by Asians" (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 8 March 1996); Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer: Chinese Opium Smuggling Networks in and around San Diego during the 1910s," Transnational Organized Crime 4:2 (2000); Williard H. Meyers III, "Of Quinqing Qinshu, Guanxi, and Shetou: The Dynamic Elements of Chinese Irregular Population Movement," in Paul J. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling: Chinese Migrant Trafficking and the Challenge to America's Immigration Tradition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997); and Sheldon X. Zhang and Mark S. Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organization of Chinese Alien Smuggling," Crime, Law & Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 25, 1, 1-16.
48. Willard H. Meyers III, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organised Crime in the East," Crime, Law and Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 24, 183. For additional assessments of guanxi as it relates to Chinese criminal enterprise, please see Douglas D. Daye, A Law Enforcement Sourcebook of Asian Crime and Cultures: Tactics and Mindsets (New York: CRC Press, 199); M. Cordell Hart, "Money and 'Guanxi': Keys to Understanding Crimes by Asians" (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 8 March 1996); Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer: Chinese Opium Smuggling Networks in and around San Diego during the 1910s," Transnational Organized Crime 4:2 (2000); Williard H. Meyers III, "Of Quinqing Qinshu, Guanxi, and Shetou: The Dynamic Elements of Chinese Irregular Population Movement," in Paul J. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling: Chinese Migrant Trafficking and the Challenge to America's Immigration Tradition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997); and Sheldon X. Zhang and Mark S. Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organization of Chinese Alien Smuggling," Crime, Law & Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 25, 1, 1-16.
49. Willard H. Meyers III, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Organised Crime in the East," Crime, Law and Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 24, 183. For additional assessments of guanxi as it relates to Chinese criminal enterprise, please see Douglas D. Daye, A Law Enforcement Sourcebook of Asian Crime and Cultures: Tactics and Mindsets (New York: CRC Press, 199); M. Cordell Hart, "Money and 'Guanxi': Keys to Understanding Crimes by Asians" (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 8 March 1996); Jeffrey Scott McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer: Chinese Opium Smuggling Networks in and around San Diego during the 1910s," Transnational Organized Crime 4:2 (2000); Williard H. Meyers III, "Of Quinqing Qinshu, Guanxi, and Shetou: The Dynamic Elements of Chinese Irregular Population Movement," in Paul J. Smith (ed.), Human Smuggling: Chinese Migrant Trafficking and the Challenge to America's Immigration Tradition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997); and Sheldon X. Zhang and Mark S. Gaylord, "Bound for the Golden Mountain: The Social Organization of Chinese Alien Smuggling," Crime, Law & Social Change: An International Journal, 1996, 25, 1, 1-16.
50. Sterling Seagrave, Lords of the Rim: The Invisible Empire of the Overseas Chinese, (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1995).
51. Alan A. Block, Organized Crime: History and Historiography in Time, Space and Organized Crime, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NY: Transaction, 1994), 41.
52. Adrian Praetzellis and Mary Praetzellis, Archaeological and Historical Studies of the 1J56 Block, Sacramento, California: An Early Chinese Community, (Rohnert Park, CA: Anthropological Studies Center of Sonoma State University, 1982) and Adrian Praetzellis, Mary Praetzellis, and Marley Brown III, "Artifacts as Symbols of Identity: An Example from Sacramento's Gold Rush Era Chinese Community," Living in Cities: Current Research in Urban Archaeology 1987, 5, 38-47. See also Roberta S. Greenwood, "The Overseas Chinese at Home," Archaeology 1978, 31, 5, 42-49; R.L. Schuyler (ed.), Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: Afro-American and Asian-American Culture History, (Fanningdale, N.Y: Baywood Publishing, 1980); Eugene M. Hattori, Mary K. Rusco and Donald R. Touhy (eds.), "Archaeological and Historical Studies at Ninth and Amherst, Lovelock, Nevada," Nevada State Museum Archaeological Services Reports, (Carson City, NV: 1979); and David L. Felton, Frank Lortie and Peter D. Schulz, The Chinese Laundry on Second Street: Papers on Archaeological and Historical Data Recovered from Selected Sites, (Nevada City, CA: Tahoe National Forest, 1984).
53. Adrian Praetzellis and Mary Praetzellis, Archaeological and Historical Studies of the 1J56 Block, Sacramento, California: An Early Chinese Community, (Rohnert Park, CA: Anthropological Studies Center of Sonoma State University, 1982) and Adrian Praetzellis, Mary Praetzellis, and Marley Brown III, "Artifacts as Symbols of Identity: An Example from Sacramento's Gold Rush Era Chinese Community," Living in Cities: Current Research in Urban Archaeology 1987, 5, 38-47. See also Roberta S. Greenwood, "The Overseas Chinese at Home," Archaeology 1978, 31, 5, 42-49; R.L. Schuyler (ed.), Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: Afro-American and Asian-American Culture History, (Fanningdale, N.Y: Baywood Publishing, 1980); Eugene M. Hattori, Mary K. Rusco and Donald R. Touhy (eds.), "Archaeological and Historical Studies at Ninth and Amherst, Lovelock, Nevada," Nevada State Museum Archaeological Services Reports, (Carson City, NV: 1979); and David L. Felton, Frank Lortie and Peter D. Schulz, The Chinese Laundry on Second Street: Papers on Archaeological and Historical Data Recovered from Selected Sites, (Nevada City, CA: Tahoe National Forest, 1984).
54. Adrian Praetzellis and Mary Praetzellis, Archaeological and Historical Studies of the 1J56 Block, Sacramento, California: An Early Chinese Community, (Rohnert Park, CA: Anthropological Studies Center of Sonoma State University, 1982) and Adrian Praetzellis, Mary Praetzellis, and Marley Brown III, "Artifacts as Symbols of Identity: An Example from Sacramento's Gold Rush Era Chinese Community," Living in Cities: Current Research in Urban Archaeology 1987, 5, 38-47. See also Roberta S. Greenwood, "The Overseas Chinese at Home," Archaeology 1978, 31, 5, 42-49; R.L. Schuyler (ed.), Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: Afro-American and Asian-American Culture History, (Fanningdale, N.Y: Baywood Publishing, 1980); Eugene M. Hattori, Mary K. Rusco and Donald R. Touhy (eds.), "Archaeological and Historical Studies at Ninth and Amherst, Lovelock, Nevada," Nevada State Museum Archaeological Services Reports, (Carson City, NV: 1979); and David L. Felton, Frank Lortie and Peter D. Schulz, The Chinese Laundry on Second Street: Papers on Archaeological and Historical Data Recovered from Selected Sites, (Nevada City, CA: Tahoe National Forest, 1984).
55. Adrian Praetzellis and Mary Praetzellis, Archaeological and Historical Studies of the 1J56 Block, Sacramento, California: An Early Chinese Community, (Rohnert Park, CA: Anthropological Studies Center of Sonoma State University, 1982) and Adrian Praetzellis, Mary Praetzellis, and Marley Brown III, "Artifacts as Symbols of Identity: An Example from Sacramento's Gold Rush Era Chinese Community," Living in Cities: Current Research in Urban Archaeology 1987, 5, 38-47. See also Roberta S. Greenwood, "The Overseas Chinese at Home," Archaeology 1978, 31, 5, 42-49; R.L. Schuyler (ed.), Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: Afro-American and Asian-American Culture History, (Fanningdale, N.Y: Baywood Publishing, 1980); Eugene M. Hattori, Mary K. Rusco and Donald R. Touhy (eds.), "Archaeological and Historical Studies at Ninth and Amherst, Lovelock, Nevada," Nevada State Museum Archaeological Services Reports, (Carson City, NV: 1979); and David L. Felton, Frank Lortie and Peter D. Schulz, The Chinese Laundry on Second Street: Papers on Archaeological and Historical Data Recovered from Selected Sites, (Nevada City, CA: Tahoe National Forest, 1984).
56. Adrian Praetzellis and Mary Praetzellis, Archaeological and Historical Studies of the 1J56 Block, Sacramento, California: An Early Chinese Community, (Rohnert Park, CA: Anthropological Studies Center of Sonoma State University, 1982) and Adrian Praetzellis, Mary Praetzellis, and Marley Brown III, "Artifacts as Symbols of Identity: An Example from Sacramento's Gold Rush Era Chinese Community," Living in Cities: Current Research in Urban Archaeology 1987, 5, 38-47. See also Roberta S. Greenwood, "The Overseas Chinese at Home," Archaeology 1978, 31, 5, 42-49; R.L. Schuyler (ed.), Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: Afro-American and Asian-American Culture History, (Fanningdale, N.Y: Baywood Publishing, 1980); Eugene M. Hattori, Mary K. Rusco and Donald R. Touhy (eds.), "Archaeological and Historical Studies at Ninth and Amherst, Lovelock, Nevada," Nevada State Museum Archaeological Services Reports, (Carson City, NV: 1979); and David L. Felton, Frank Lortie and Peter D. Schulz, The Chinese Laundry on Second Street: Papers on Archaeological and Historical Data Recovered from Selected Sites, (Nevada City, CA: Tahoe National Forest, 1984).
57. Adrian Praetzellis and Mary Praetzellis, Archaeological and Historical Studies of the 1J56 Block, Sacramento, California: An Early Chinese Community, (Rohnert Park, CA: Anthropological Studies Center of Sonoma State University, 1982) and Adrian Praetzellis, Mary Praetzellis, and Marley Brown III, "Artifacts as Symbols of Identity: An Example from Sacramento's Gold Rush Era Chinese Community," Living in Cities: Current Research in Urban Archaeology 1987, 5, 38-47. See also Roberta S. Greenwood, "The Overseas Chinese at Home," Archaeology 1978, 31, 5, 42-49; R.L. Schuyler (ed.), Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: Afro-American and Asian-American Culture History, (Fanningdale, N.Y: Baywood Publishing, 1980); Eugene M. Hattori, Mary K. Rusco and Donald R. Touhy (eds.), "Archaeological and Historical Studies at Ninth and Amherst, Lovelock, Nevada," Nevada State Museum Archaeological Services Reports, (Carson City, NV: 1979); and David L. Felton, Frank Lortie and Peter D. Schulz, The Chinese Laundry on Second Street: Papers on Archaeological and Historical Data Recovered from Selected Sites, (Nevada City, CA: Tahoe National Forest, 1984).
58. J.T. Omohundru, Chinese Merchant Families in Iloilo, (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1981) and J.T. Omohundru, "Trading Patterns of Philippine Chinese: Strategies of Sojourning Middlemen," in K. Hunter (ed.), "Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History, and Ethnography," Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia 13 (Ann Arbor, MI: 1979), 113-136.
59. J.T. Omohundru, Chinese Merchant Families in Iloilo, (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1981) and J.T. Omohundru, "Trading Patterns of Philippine Chinese: Strategies of Sojourning Middlemen," in K. Hunter (ed.), "Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History, and Ethnography," Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia 13 (Ann Arbor, MI: 1979), 113-136.
60. Omohundru, Chinese Merchant Families in Iloilo, 84, 114.
61. Meyers, "The Emerging Threat of Transnational Crime from the East," 183.
62. Ibid.: 184.
63. Ibid.: 185.
64. Ibid.: 185-186.
65. Ibid.: 186.
66. Ibid.: 186-187.
67. Ibid.: 187.
68. Ibid.: 188.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. Ibid.: 188-189.
72. Alan A. Block, "European Drug Trafficking: Between the World Wars," Journal of Social History 1989; Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs and Pipe-Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer"; and Kathryn Meyer and Terry M. Parssinen, Webs of Smoke: Smugglers, Warlords, Spies, and the History of the International Drug Trade (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998).
73. Alan A. Block, "European Drug Trafficking: Between the World Wars," Journal of Social History 1989; Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs and Pipe-Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer"; and Kathryn Meyer and Terry M. Parssinen, Webs of Smoke: Smugglers, Warlords, Spies, and the History of the International Drug Trade (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998).
74. Alan A. Block, "European Drug Trafficking: Between the World Wars," Journal of Social History 1989; Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs and Pipe-Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer"; and Kathryn Meyer and Terry M. Parssinen, Webs of Smoke: Smugglers, Warlords, Spies, and the History of the International Drug Trade (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998).
75. Alan A. Block, "European Drug Trafficking: Between the World Wars," Journal of Social History 1989; Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs and Pipe-Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); McIllwain, "An Equal Opportunity Employer"; and Kathryn Meyer and Terry M. Parssinen, Webs of Smoke: Smugglers, Warlords, Spies, and the History of the International Drug Trade (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998).
76. Egyptian Government, Central Narcotics Intelligence Bureau, Annual Report for the Year 1929, (Cairo: Government Press, 1930), 1.
77. Ibid.: 3-8.
78. Ibid.: 4.
79. Ibid.: 11.
80. Ibid.: 11-12.
81. Ibid.: 12-13.
82. This trade was even better known by the general public after the 1935 publication of a classic work of travel literature by adventurer and part-time smuggler Henry de Monfreid entitled Hashish: True Adventures of a Red Sea Smuggler in the Twenties. A reprint edition was recently issued: Henri de Monfried, Hasish, (Wickford, RI: North Books, 1998).
83. This trade was even better known by the general public after the 1935 publication of a classic work of travel literature by adventurer and part-time smuggler Henry de Monfreid entitled Hashish: True Adventures of a Red Sea Smuggler in the Twenties. A reprint edition was recently issued: Henri de Monfried, Hasish, (Wickford, RI: North Books, 1998).
84. As U.S. Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Hearings on Organized Crime and Illicit Traffic in Narcotics, Part 4, Eighty-Eighth Congress, First and Second Sessions, July 30 1964 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964).