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7 cm), on the order of ≈ 0.3 to 1 gigayear. But other mechanisms such as penetrative convection and rotation may be even more effective at rapidly transporting or redistributing heavy elements across the radiative zone [K. Zhang and G. Schubert, Science 273, 941 (1996)].
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The adopted ages vary because they depend on the type of the parent star. For example, I used t = 1 to 6 gigayears for 51 Peg, a G2V star, and t = 1 to 6 gigayears for Tau Bootis and Upsilon Andromedae, which are of F7V and F8V type, respectively. See (42) for details.
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eq. The consequence is that in the absence of an additional energy source, the intrinsic luminosity, L, that maintained convective activity drops dL/dM = -TdS/dt → 0 until a radiative region appears and grows. This allows the internal entropy to continue to decrease (that is, the planet continues to cool and contract beyond the fully convective limit). The appearance of this radiative zone is inevitable, independent of any assumption about opacities.
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The effective capture radius is defined as the radius at which an incoming planetesimal on a typical trajectory intercepts more of the gas of the nebula than its own mass. See J. B. Pollack, M. Podolak, P. Bodenheimer, B. Christofferson, Icarus 67, 409 (1986) and (50).
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NASA discovery mission INSIDE
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W. B. Hubbard, Icarus 137, 196 (1999). See also the proposed NASA discovery mission INSIDE (http:// INSIDE Jupiter.lpl.arizona.edu/).
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Hubbard, W.B.1
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0344376287
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COROT, a mission of the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales KEPLER, a NASA project (http://www.kepler.arc. nasa.gov/)
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Two space missions are dedicated to the photometric detection of transits: COROT, a mission of the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, due to be launched in 2003 (http://www.astrsp-mrs.fr/www/pagecorot/html); and KEPLER, a NASA project (http://www.kepler.arc. nasa.gov/).
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83
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0344808118
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note
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I thank D. Saumon, B. Gladman, and S. Cazaux for many comments on the manuscript and S. Atreya, D. Gautier, B. Hubbard, A. Morbidelli, T. Owen, and D. Stevenson for stimulating discussions. This research was supported by CNRS (Action Thématique Innovante and Programme National de Planétologie).
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