Removing roots: "North American Hiroshima Maidens" and the X ray

Technology and Culture

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 723-745

  Herzig, Rebecca ^a  

^a BATES COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ATOMIC WARFARE; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; JAPAN; PLASTIC SURGERY; RADIATION INJURY; RADIOTHERAPY; UNITED STATES; WAR;

FEMALE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; JAPAN; NUCLEAR WARFARE; RADIATION INJURIES; RADIOTHERAPY; SURGERY, PLASTIC; UNITED STATES; WAR;

EID: 0033205094     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.1999.0175     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. J. W. Williams to C. B. Pinkham, memorandum, 2 March 1940, folder 0317-01, American Medical Association Historical Health Fraud Collection, Chicago (hereafter cited as AMA).
2. Ibid.
3. A. C. Cipollaro and M. B. Einhorn, "Use of X-Rays for Treatment of Hypertrichosis is Dangerous," Journal of the American Medical Association 135 (11 October 1947): 350.
4. H. Martin et al., "Radiation-induced skin cancer of the head and neck," Cancer 25 (1970): 61-71.
5. Irving B. Rosen and Paul G. Walfish, "Sequelae of radiation facial epilation (North American Hiroshima maiden syndrome)," Surgery 106 (December 1989): 946-50. The analogy between the twelve former epilation patients considered and the famous Hiroshima Maidens structures the physicians' presentation of the syndrome. The article opens, for example, not with a description of the twelve patients but with a description of the bombing of Hiroshima and its resultant "100,000 deaths" (946). It concludes by explaining how the epilation patients, "like their Japanese counterparts," managed to accept "their situation with fortitude and were able in most part to fashion a normal life" (950).
6. For further discussion of the original Hiroshima Maidens, see David Serlin, "Cut-Out Identities: Cosmetic Surgery and Cultural Imperialism," Merge 0 (1998): 46-50.
7. In this respect, X-ray hair removal devices might better be likened to cigarettes or tanning beds than to weapons of war. Judith A. McGaw's classic essay "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History" provides a cogent critique of "victim" approaches to the historiography of women and technology; see In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Pa., 1989). For a more recent comment on feminist historiographies of technology, see Nina E. Lerman, Arwen Palmer Mohun, and Ruth Oldenziel, "Versatile Tools: Gender Analysis and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 1-8.
8. In this respect, X-ray hair removal devices might better be likened to cigarettes or tanning beds than to weapons of war. Judith A. McGaw's classic essay "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History" provides a cogent critique of "victim" approaches to the historiography of women and technology; see In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Pa., 1989). For a more recent comment on feminist historiographies of technology, see Nina E. Lerman, Arwen Palmer Mohun, and Ruth Oldenziel, "Versatile Tools: Gender Analysis and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 1-8.
9. Cipollaro and Einhorn, 350. Tricho advertisements boasted that their method of hair removal had been used "by thousands of women long before the discovery was announced to the public," lending further indeterminacy to the number of individuals using X-ray epilation. See "The Tricho System," advertisement for George Hoppman's salon, Chicago, folder 0318-01, AMA.
10. While a few men used X-ray epilation for removal of hair from the face, ears, and neck, the vast majority of X-ray clients were women. Indeed, some men expressed concern that adopting this method of hair removal - a method marketed so strongly to women - might cause them to become "effeminate." See, e.g., Arthur Nelson to AMA, ca. 20 July 1934, folder 0317-01, AMA.
11. J. B. Loudon, "On Body Products," in The Anthropology of the Body, ed. John Blacking (London, 1977), 163. On the prevalence of hair removal in ancient Greece, for instance, see Martin Kilmer, "Genital Phobia and Depilation," Journal of Hellenic Studies 102 (1982): 104-12. For an account of contemporary white women's attitudes toward body hair, see Susan A. Basow, "The Hairless Ideal: Women and Their Body Hair," Psychology of Women Quarterly 15 (1991): 83-96.
12. J. B. Loudon, "On Body Products," in The Anthropology of the Body, ed. John Blacking (London, 1977), 163. On the prevalence of hair removal in ancient Greece, for instance, see Martin Kilmer, "Genital Phobia and Depilation," Journal of Hellenic Studies 102 (1982): 104-12. For an account of contemporary white women's attitudes toward body hair, see Susan A. Basow, "The Hairless Ideal: Women and Their Body Hair," Psychology of Women Quarterly 15 (1991): 83-96.
13. J. B. Loudon, "On Body Products," in The Anthropology of the Body, ed. John Blacking (London, 1977), 163. On the prevalence of hair removal in ancient Greece, for instance, see Martin Kilmer, "Genital Phobia and Depilation," Journal of Hellenic Studies 102 (1982): 104-12. For an account of contemporary white women's attitudes toward body hair, see Susan A. Basow, "The Hairless Ideal: Women and Their Body Hair," Psychology of Women Quarterly 15 (1991): 83-96.
14. Alfred F. Niemoeller, Superfluous Hair and Its Removal (New York, 1938), 14.
15. On the evolutionary significance of hair, see Londa Schiebinger, Nature's Body: Gender and the Making of Modern Science (Boston, 1993), and Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, Mass., 1989).
16. On the evolutionary significance of hair, see Londa Schiebinger, Nature's Body: Gender and the Making of Modern Science (Boston, 1993), and Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, Mass., 1989).
17. Attitudes concerning immigration, race, and hair are exemplified in "Racial Characteristics of Hair," Scientific American Supplement, 10 March 1917, 160. On ideals of white middle-class feminine beauty, see Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983); Kathy Peiss, Hope in a Jar: The Making of America's Beauty Culture (New York, 1998); Vincent Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell: American Hygiene in an Age of Advertisement (Ames, Iowa, 1992).
18. Attitudes concerning immigration, race, and hair are exemplified in "Racial Characteristics of Hair," Scientific American Supplement, 10 March 1917, 160. On ideals of white middle-class feminine beauty, see Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983); Kathy Peiss, Hope in a Jar: The Making of America's Beauty Culture (New York, 1998); Vincent Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell: American Hygiene in an Age of Advertisement (Ames, Iowa, 1992).
19. Attitudes concerning immigration, race, and hair are exemplified in "Racial Characteristics of Hair," Scientific American Supplement, 10 March 1917, 160. On ideals of white middle-class feminine beauty, see Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983); Kathy Peiss, Hope in a Jar: The Making of America's Beauty Culture (New York, 1998); Vincent Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell: American Hygiene in an Age of Advertisement (Ames, Iowa, 1992).
20. Attitudes concerning immigration, race, and hair are exemplified in "Racial Characteristics of Hair," Scientific American Supplement, 10 March 1917, 160. On ideals of white middle-class feminine beauty, see Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago, 1983); Kathy Peiss, Hope in a Jar: The Making of America's Beauty Culture (New York, 1998); Vincent Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell: American Hygiene in an Age of Advertisement (Ames, Iowa, 1992).
21. For one of the earliest uses of the term "hypertrichosis," see C. Krebs, "Case of Hypertrichosis (Homo Hirsutus)," trans. H. J. Garrigues, Archives of Dermatology 5 (1878): 161-62. A partial bibliography of period dermatological articles on hypertrichosis can be found in L. Brocq, "Cent Dix Hypertrichoses Traitées Par L'Électrolyse," Annales de Dermatologie et Syphilogie 8 (1897): 1083-84.
22. For one of the earliest uses of the term "hypertrichosis," see C. Krebs, "Case of Hypertrichosis (Homo Hirsutus)," trans. H. J. Garrigues, Archives of Dermatology 5 (1878): 161-62. A partial bibliography of period dermatological articles on hypertrichosis can be found in L. Brocq, "Cent Dix Hypertrichoses Traitées Par L'Électrolyse," Annales de Dermatologie et Syphilogie 8 (1897): 1083-84.
23. George Henry Fox, "On the Permanent Removal of Hair by Electrolysis," Medical Record 15 (1879): 270.
24. Christine Hope, "Caucasian Female Body Hair and American Culture," Journal of American Culture 5 (spring 1982): 93-99.
25. See, e.g., Marie Fink to AMA, 17 August 1931, folder 0317-02, AMA; Mrs. B. Tellef to AMA, 6 August 1926, folder 0318-01, AMA; Mrs. Allen Stamper to Hygeia, 4 November 1929, folder 0317-03, AMA; Joseph Rohrer, Rohrer's Illustrated Book on Scientific Modern Beauty Culture (New York, 1924), 46.
26. See, e.g., Marie Fink to AMA, 17 August 1931, folder 0317-02, AMA; Mrs. B. Tellef to AMA, 6 August 1926, folder 0318-01, AMA; Mrs. Allen Stamper to Hygeia, 4 November 1929, folder 0317-03, AMA; Joseph Rohrer, Rohrer's Illustrated Book on Scientific Modern Beauty Culture (New York, 1924), 46.
27. Herman Goodman, "The Problem of Excess Hair," Hygeia 8 (May 1930): 433; Maurice Costello, "How to Remove Superfluous Hair," Hygeia 18 (July 1940): 586; William J. Young, "Hypertrichosis and Its Treatment," Kentucky Medical Journal 18 (June 1920): 217; Oscar L. Levin, "Superfluous Hair," Good Housekeeping, September 1928, 106. While physicians and beauty specialists all reported the intense suffering endured by hairy women, the presence of body hair did not necessarily lead women to depression. At least a few women viewed their bountiful body hair as neither excessive, superfluous, nor merely tolerable, but instead as a beautiful complement to the rest of their physique. See, e.g., Joseph Mitchell, "Profiles: Lady Olga," New Yorker, 3 August 1940): 20-28.
28. Herman Goodman, "The Problem of Excess Hair," Hygeia 8 (May 1930): 433; Maurice Costello, "How to Remove Superfluous Hair," Hygeia 18 (July 1940): 586; William J. Young, "Hypertrichosis and Its Treatment," Kentucky Medical Journal 18 (June 1920): 217; Oscar L. Levin, "Superfluous Hair," Good Housekeeping, September 1928, 106. While physicians and beauty specialists all reported the intense suffering endured by hairy women, the presence of body hair did not necessarily lead women to depression. At least a few women viewed their bountiful body hair as neither excessive, superfluous, nor merely tolerable, but instead as a beautiful complement to the rest of their physique. See, e.g., Joseph Mitchell, "Profiles: Lady Olga," New Yorker, 3 August 1940): 20-28.
29. Herman Goodman, "The Problem of Excess Hair," Hygeia 8 (May 1930): 433; Maurice Costello, "How to Remove Superfluous Hair," Hygeia 18 (July 1940): 586; William J. Young, "Hypertrichosis and Its Treatment," Kentucky Medical Journal 18 (June 1920): 217; Oscar L. Levin, "Superfluous Hair," Good Housekeeping, September 1928, 106. While physicians and beauty specialists all reported the intense suffering endured by hairy women, the presence of body hair did not necessarily lead women to depression. At least a few women viewed their bountiful body hair as neither excessive, superfluous, nor merely tolerable, but instead as a beautiful complement to the rest of their physique. See, e.g., Joseph Mitchell, "Profiles: Lady Olga," New Yorker, 3 August 1940): 20-28.
30. Herman Goodman, "The Problem of Excess Hair," Hygeia 8 (May 1930): 433; Maurice Costello, "How to Remove Superfluous Hair," Hygeia 18 (July 1940): 586; William J. Young, "Hypertrichosis and Its Treatment," Kentucky Medical Journal 18 (June 1920): 217; Oscar L. Levin, "Superfluous Hair," Good Housekeeping, September 1928, 106. While physicians and beauty specialists all reported the intense suffering endured by hairy women, the presence of body hair did not necessarily lead women to depression. At least a few women viewed their bountiful body hair as neither excessive, superfluous, nor merely tolerable, but instead as a beautiful complement to the rest of their physique. See, e.g., Joseph Mitchell, "Profiles: Lady Olga," New Yorker, 3 August 1940): 20-28.
31. Herman Goodman, "The Problem of Excess Hair," Hygeia 8 (May 1930): 433; Maurice Costello, "How to Remove Superfluous Hair," Hygeia 18 (July 1940): 586; William J. Young, "Hypertrichosis and Its Treatment," Kentucky Medical Journal 18 (June 1920): 217; Oscar L. Levin, "Superfluous Hair," Good Housekeeping, September 1928, 106. While physicians and beauty specialists all reported the intense suffering endured by hairy women, the presence of body hair did not necessarily lead women to depression. At least a few women viewed their bountiful body hair as neither excessive, superfluous, nor merely tolerable, but instead as a beautiful complement to the rest of their physique. See, e.g., Joseph Mitchell, "Profiles: Lady Olga," New Yorker, 3 August 1940): 20-28.
32. Paul E. Bechet, "The Etiology and Treatment of Hypertrichosis," New York Medical Journal 98 (16 August 1913): 313.
33. Ironically, some X-ray epilation clients - such as "Mrs. E.B.," aged 30 - were so upset by the atrophy and other effects of radiation poisoning, particularly if their hypertrichosis had been only "mild" in the first place, that they attempted suicide. See F. J. Eichenlaub, "Some More Tricho Cases," Journal of the American Medical Association 94 (26 April 1930): 1341.
34. Niemoeller (n. 11 above), 13.
35. Historian Evelynn M. Hammonds discusses the reliance of race on the visual in "New Technologies of Race," in Processed Lives: Gender and Technology in Everyday Life, ed. Jennifer Terry and Melodie Calvert (New York, 1997), 109.
36. As Kobena Mercer has put it, "the legacy of ... biologizing and totalizing racism is traced as a presence in everyday comments made about our hair" (249) See his extended argument about the racial significance of human hair, "Black Hair/Style Politics," in Out There: Marginalization and Contemporary Culture, ed. Russell Ferguson et al. (Cambridge, Mass., 1990): 247-64.
37. Peter A. Browne, Trichologia Mammalium; or, A Treatise on the Organization, Properties and Uses of Hair and Wool (Philadelphia, 1853), 66.
38. William Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes Toward Race in America, 1815-1859 (Chicago, 1960), 150-54.
39. See, e.g., Delmar Emil Bordeaux, Cosmetic Electrolysis and the Removal of Superfluous Hair (Rockford, Ill., 1942); Anna Hazelton Delavan, "Superfluous Hair," Good Housekeeping, March 1925, 96. On the valorization of whiteness in dominant middle-class U.S. beauty discourse more generally, see Peiss (n. 13 above), 34.
40. See, e.g., Delmar Emil Bordeaux, Cosmetic Electrolysis and the Removal of Superfluous Hair (Rockford, Ill., 1942); Anna Hazelton Delavan, "Superfluous Hair," Good Housekeeping, March 1925, 96. On the valorization of whiteness in dominant middle-class U.S. beauty discourse more generally, see Peiss (n. 13 above), 34.
41. Ernest L. McEwen, "The Problem of Hypertrichosis," Journal of Cutaneous Diseases Including Syphilis 35 (1917): 830. See also Frank Crozer Knowles, "Hypertrichiasis in Childhood: The So-Called 'Dog-Faced Boy,'" Pennsylvania Medical Journal 24 (March 1921): 403.
42. Ernest L. McEwen, "The Problem of Hypertrichosis," Journal of Cutaneous Diseases Including Syphilis 35 (1917): 830. See also Frank Crozer Knowles, "Hypertrichiasis in Childhood: The So-Called 'Dog-Faced Boy,'" Pennsylvania Medical Journal 24 (March 1921): 403.
43. "Beauty is your Heritage," advertisement for Marveau Laboratories, Chicago, folder 0317-02, AMA; "With the Advancement of Science Comes the Modern Way to Remove Superfluous Hair Permanently: TRICHO SYSTEM," advertisement for Tricho salon, Boston, folder 0317-17, AMA; Albert C. Geyser, "Facts and Fallacies about the Removal of Superfluous Hair," folder 0317-17, AMA; "Loveliness for the Most Discriminating Women," advertisement for Hair-X Salon, Philadelphia, folder 0317-02, AMA.
44. "Beauty is your Heritage," advertisement for Marveau Laboratories, Chicago, folder 0317-02, AMA; "With the Advancement of Science Comes the Modern Way to Remove Superfluous Hair Permanently: TRICHO SYSTEM," advertisement for Tricho salon, Boston, folder 0317-17, AMA; Albert C. Geyser, "Facts and Fallacies about the Removal of Superfluous Hair," folder 0317-17, AMA; "Loveliness for the Most Discriminating Women," advertisement for Hair-X Salon, Philadelphia, folder 0317-02, AMA.
45. "Beauty is your Heritage," advertisement for Marveau Laboratories, Chicago, folder 0317-02, AMA; "With the Advancement of Science Comes the Modern Way to Remove Superfluous Hair Permanently: TRICHO SYSTEM," advertisement for Tricho salon, Boston, folder 0317-17, AMA; Albert C. Geyser, "Facts and Fallacies about the Removal of Superfluous Hair," folder 0317-17, AMA; "Loveliness for the Most Discriminating Women," advertisement for Hair-X Salon, Philadelphia, folder 0317-02, AMA.
46. "Beauty is your Heritage," advertisement for Marveau Laboratories, Chicago, folder 0317-02, AMA; "With the Advancement of Science Comes the Modern Way to Remove Superfluous Hair Permanently: TRICHO SYSTEM," advertisement for Tricho salon, Boston, folder 0317-17, AMA; Albert C. Geyser, "Facts and Fallacies about the Removal of Superfluous Hair," folder 0317-17, AMA; "Loveliness for the Most Discriminating Women," advertisement for Hair-X Salon, Philadelphia, folder 0317-02, AMA.
47. Condemnations of the technique in women's magazines were vivid and unambiguous. In 1928, for instance, "skin specialist" Dr. Oscar Levin described the perils of X-ray hair removal to the readers of Good Housekeeping: "the skin may become inflamed, scaly, wrinkled, streaked with prominent blood vessels ... at times, later in life, warty and scaly growths may appear, which finally break down and ulcerate, and may even become cancerous ... the weight of expert opinion is against the use of x-rays or any type of radiation for destroying superfluous hair." See Levin (n. 18 above), 190-91. On clients' resistance to authorities' condemnations, see H. L. J. Marshall to AMA, 30 May 1923, folder 0318-02, AMA.
48. Some women sought medical advice on the X-ray treatments of superfluous hair, and upon hearing condemnation of the practice unhesitatingly rejected it. Others, already well informed on the potential dangers of X-ray overexposure, were blatantly misinformed about the nature of the technology by X-ray providers themselves. But these were a small minority among epilation clients. See, e.g., the case report from G. V. Stryker in "The Tricho System Again," Journal of the American Medical Association 92 (16 March 1929): 919; Mary Mulholland to AMA, 24 June 1930, folder 0318-02, AMA.
49. Advertisement for the Velvet Mitten Company, Los Angeles, folder 0317-01, AMA; Albert Geyser, "Truth and Fallacy Concerning the Roentgen Ray in Hypertrichosis," Scientific Therapy and Practical Research (March 1926), reprint in folder 0317-17, AMA.
50. Young (n. 18 above), 217; Niemoeller (n. 11 above), 91.
51. Geyser, "Truth and Fallacy."
52. On Koremlu's toxicity, see Journal of the American Medical Association (30 July 1932): 407; A. J. Cramp, Nostrums and Quackery and Pseudo-Medicine (Chicago, 1936), 3:35; and Gwen Kay, "Regulating Beauty: The Role of the Food and Drug Administration in the 1938 Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the History of Science Society, Atlanta, Ga., November 1996).
53. On Koremlu's toxicity, see Journal of the American Medical Association (30 July 1932): 407; A. J. Cramp, Nostrums and Quackery and Pseudo-Medicine (Chicago, 1936), 3:35; and Gwen Kay, "Regulating Beauty: The Role of the Food and Drug Administration in the 1938 Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the History of Science Society, Atlanta, Ga., November 1996).
54. On Koremlu's toxicity, see Journal of the American Medical Association (30 July 1932): 407; A. J. Cramp, Nostrums and Quackery and Pseudo-Medicine (Chicago, 1936), 3:35; and Gwen Kay, "Regulating Beauty: The Role of the Food and Drug Administration in the 1938 Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the History of Science Society, Atlanta, Ga., November 1996).
55. Cited by Niemoeller, 48.
56. Ernst Ludwig Franz Kroymayer, The Cosmetic Treatment of Skin Complaints (London, 1930), 69; McEwen (n. 27 above), 832.
57. As technical refinements were made to electrolysis equipment, the procedure was also practiced at home. See Niemoeller, chap. 21.
58. Adolph Brand, "Hypertrichosis," New York Medical Journal 97 (1913): 708.
59. Brocq (n. 14 above).
60. Ibid.; Young (n. 18 above), 219.
61. While historians typically resist explaining technological diffusion according to reified notions of "utility" (the idea that certain technologies succeed simply because they "work" better than others), the efficacy of X-ray hair removal was acknowledged by nearly all commentators in the early twentieth century. For a compelling critique of the notion of technological utility, see Michael Mulkay, "Knowledge and Utility: Implications for the Sociology of Knowledge," Social Studies of Science 9 (1979): 63-80.
62. AMA to Mrs. P. G. Range, 28 October 1927, folder 0314-03, AMA; AMA to Mr. A. E. Backman, 29 May 1930, folder 0314-03, AMA.
63. Mary Mulholland to AMA, 20 May 1930, folder 0318-02, AMA. This description of the Tricho machine may remind some readers of the shoe-fitting fluoroscopes employed in North American and European shoe stores in the mid-twentieth century. See "Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscopes," Journal of the American Medical Association 139 (9 April 1949): 1004-5; H. Kopp, "Radiation Damage Caused By Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope," British Medical Journal 2 (1957): 1344-45.
64. Mary Mulholland to AMA, 20 May 1930, folder 0318-02, AMA. This description of the Tricho machine may remind some readers of the shoe-fitting fluoroscopes employed in North American and European shoe stores in the mid-twentieth century. See "Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscopes," Journal of the American Medical Association 139 (9 April 1949): 1004-5; H. Kopp, "Radiation Damage Caused By Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope," British Medical Journal 2 (1957): 1344-45.
65. Geyser, "Facts and Fallacies" (n. 28 above).
66. "Gone for Good," advertisement for Rudolph Tricho Institute, Detroit, folder 0318-01, AMA.
67. See, for example, "Tricho Method of Removing Superfluous Hair," advertisement for Mrs. L. P. Williams' Tricho salons, Connecticut and Massachusetts, folder 0318-01, AMA.
68. "Loveliness for the Most Discriminating Women" (n. 28 above).
69. "A Flawless Skin," Boston Post, 15 November 1928, copy in folder 0318-02, AMA.
70. "Gone for Good."
71. Banner (n. 13 above), 205.
72. Roentgen's discovery has been mythicized by Otto Classer in his Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of Röntgen Rays (Springfield, Ill., 1934) and W. C. Röntgen (Springfield, Ill., 2nd ed., 1958). On the immediate public response to Roentgen's announcement, see Nancy Knight, "The New Light: X-Rays and Medical Futurism," in Imagining Tomorrow: History, Technology, and the American Future, ed. Joseph J. Corn (Cambridge, Mass., 1986); Ronald L. Eisenberg, Radiology: An Illustrated History (St. Louis, 1992); E. R. N. Grigg, The Trail of the Invisible Light (Springfield, Ill., 1965); Ruth Brecher and Edward Brecher, The Rays: A History of Radiology in the United States and Canada (Baltimore, 1969). Curiously, most of these histories focus on the imaging and diagnostic capabilities of the X ray, to the neglect of the technology's myriad therapeutic applications.
73. Roentgen's discovery has been mythicized by Otto Classer in his Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of Röntgen Rays (Springfield, Ill., 1934) and W. C. Röntgen (Springfield, Ill., 2nd ed., 1958). On the immediate public response to Roentgen's announcement, see Nancy Knight, "The New Light: X-Rays and Medical Futurism," in Imagining Tomorrow: History, Technology, and the American Future, ed. Joseph J. Corn (Cambridge, Mass., 1986); Ronald L. Eisenberg, Radiology: An Illustrated History (St. Louis, 1992); E. R. N. Grigg, The Trail of the Invisible Light (Springfield, Ill., 1965); Ruth Brecher and Edward Brecher, The Rays: A History of Radiology in the United States and Canada (Baltimore, 1969). Curiously, most of these histories focus on the imaging and diagnostic capabilities of the X ray, to the neglect of the technology's myriad therapeutic applications.
74. Roentgen's discovery has been mythicized by Otto Classer in his Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of Röntgen Rays (Springfield, Ill., 1934) and W. C. Röntgen (Springfield, Ill., 2nd ed., 1958). On the immediate public response to Roentgen's announcement, see Nancy Knight, "The New Light: X-Rays and Medical Futurism," in Imagining Tomorrow: History, Technology, and the American Future, ed. Joseph J. Corn (Cambridge, Mass., 1986); Ronald L. Eisenberg, Radiology: An Illustrated History (St. Louis, 1992); E. R. N. Grigg, The Trail of the Invisible Light (Springfield, Ill., 1965); Ruth Brecher and Edward Brecher, The Rays: A History of Radiology in the United States and Canada (Baltimore, 1969). Curiously, most of these histories focus on the imaging and diagnostic capabilities of the X ray, to the neglect of the technology's myriad therapeutic applications.
75. Roentgen's discovery has been mythicized by Otto Classer in his Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of Röntgen Rays (Springfield, Ill., 1934) and W. C. Röntgen (Springfield, Ill., 2nd ed., 1958). On the immediate public response to Roentgen's announcement, see Nancy Knight, "The New Light: X-Rays and Medical Futurism," in Imagining Tomorrow: History, Technology, and the American Future, ed. Joseph J. Corn (Cambridge, Mass., 1986); Ronald L. Eisenberg, Radiology: An Illustrated History (St. Louis, 1992); E. R. N. Grigg, The Trail of the Invisible Light (Springfield, Ill., 1965); Ruth Brecher and Edward Brecher, The Rays: A History of Radiology in the United States and Canada (Baltimore, 1969). Curiously, most of these histories focus on the imaging and diagnostic capabilities of the X ray, to the neglect of the technology's myriad therapeutic applications.
76. Roentgen's discovery has been mythicized by Otto Classer in his Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of Röntgen Rays (Springfield, Ill., 1934) and W. C. Röntgen (Springfield, Ill., 2nd ed., 1958). On the immediate public response to Roentgen's announcement, see Nancy Knight, "The New Light: X-Rays and Medical Futurism," in Imagining Tomorrow: History, Technology, and the American Future, ed. Joseph J. Corn (Cambridge, Mass., 1986); Ronald L. Eisenberg, Radiology: An Illustrated History (St. Louis, 1992); E. R. N. Grigg, The Trail of the Invisible Light (Springfield, Ill., 1965); Ruth Brecher and Edward Brecher, The Rays: A History of Radiology in the United States and Canada (Baltimore, 1969). Curiously, most of these histories focus on the imaging and diagnostic capabilities of the X ray, to the neglect of the technology's myriad therapeutic applications.
77. Roentgen's discovery has been mythicized by Otto Classer in his Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of Röntgen Rays (Springfield, Ill., 1934) and W. C. Röntgen (Springfield, Ill., 2nd ed., 1958). On the immediate public response to Roentgen's announcement, see Nancy Knight, "The New Light: X-Rays and Medical Futurism," in Imagining Tomorrow: History, Technology, and the American Future, ed. Joseph J. Corn (Cambridge, Mass., 1986); Ronald L. Eisenberg, Radiology: An Illustrated History (St. Louis, 1992); E. R. N. Grigg, The Trail of the Invisible Light (Springfield, Ill., 1965); Ruth Brecher and Edward Brecher, The Rays: A History of Radiology in the United States and Canada (Baltimore, 1969). Curiously, most of these histories focus on the imaging and diagnostic capabilities of the X ray, to the neglect of the technology's myriad therapeutic applications.
78. John Daniel, "The X-rays," Science, 10 April 1896, 562-63.
79. Brecher and Brecher, 82.
80. Eduard Schiff and Leopold Freund, "Beiträge zur Radiotherapie," Weiner Medicinische Wochenschrift 48 (28 May 1898): 1058-61.
81. Neville Wood, "Depilation by Roentgen Rays," Lancet 1 (27 January 1900): 231; T. Sjögren and E. Sederholm, "Beitrag zur therapeutischen Verwertung der Röntgenstrahlen," Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Röntgenstrahlen 4 (1901): 145-70; Edith R. Meek, "A Variety of Skin Lesions Treated by X-ray," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 147 (7 August 1902): 152-53.
82. Neville Wood, "Depilation by Roentgen Rays," Lancet 1 (27 January 1900): 231; T. Sjögren and E. Sederholm, "Beitrag zur therapeutischen Verwertung der Röntgenstrahlen," Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Röntgenstrahlen 4 (1901): 145-70; Edith R. Meek, "A Variety of Skin Lesions Treated by X-ray," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 147 (7 August 1902): 152-53.
83. Neville Wood, "Depilation by Roentgen Rays," Lancet 1 (27 January 1900): 231; T. Sjögren and E. Sederholm, "Beitrag zur therapeutischen Verwertung der Röntgenstrahlen," Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Röntgenstrahlen 4 (1901): 145-70; Edith R. Meek, "A Variety of Skin Lesions Treated by X-ray," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 147 (7 August 1902): 152-53.
84. Mihran Krikor Kassabian, Röntgen Rays and Electro-therapeutics (Philadelphia, 1910), 80.
85. V. E. A. Pullin and W. J. Wiltshire, X-Rays Past and Present (London, 1927) 173-74.
86. A review of early awareness of X-ray sequelae may be found in Brecher and Brecher (n. 51 above), chap. 7.
87. See, for example, the long, autobiographical description of the grisly results of prolonged X-ray exposure in S. J. R., "Some Effects of the X-rays on the Hands," Nature, 29 October 1896, 621, or Elihu Thomson's early descriptions of his famous self-experiments with X-ray exposure: "Roentgen Rays Act Strongly on the Tissues," Electrical Engineer 22 (25 November 1896): 534, and "Roentgen Ray Burns," Electrical Engineer 23 (14 April 1897): 400.
88. See, for example, the long, autobiographical description of the grisly results of prolonged X-ray exposure in S. J. R., "Some Effects of the X-rays on the Hands," Nature, 29 October 1896, 621, or Elihu Thomson's early descriptions of his famous self-experiments with X-ray exposure: "Roentgen Rays Act Strongly on the Tissues," Electrical Engineer 22 (25 November 1896): 534, and "Roentgen Ray Burns," Electrical Engineer 23 (14 April 1897): 400.
89. See, for example, the long, autobiographical description of the grisly results of prolonged X-ray exposure in S. J. R., "Some Effects of the X-rays on the Hands," Nature, 29 October 1896, 621, or Elihu Thomson's early descriptions of his famous self-experiments with X-ray exposure: "Roentgen Rays Act Strongly on the Tissues," Electrical Engineer 22 (25 November 1896): 534, and "Roentgen Ray Burns," Electrical Engineer 23 (14 April 1897): 400.
90. For a general overview of the professionalization of medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York, 1982). On the role of the X ray in professionalization in particular, see Joel Howell, Technology in the Hospital (Baltimore, 1995); Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge, 1978); and Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J., 1997). Lisa Cartwright rightly critiques historians' repeated depiction of the X ray as the defining tool of modern professional medicine; see her Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, 1995), esp. chap. 5.
91. For a general overview of the professionalization of medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York, 1982). On the role of the X ray in professionalization in particular, see Joel Howell, Technology in the Hospital (Baltimore, 1995); Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge, 1978); and Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J., 1997). Lisa Cartwright rightly critiques historians' repeated depiction of the X ray as the defining tool of modern professional medicine; see her Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, 1995), esp. chap. 5.
92. For a general overview of the professionalization of medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York, 1982). On the role of the X ray in professionalization in particular, see Joel Howell, Technology in the Hospital (Baltimore, 1995); Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge, 1978); and Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J., 1997). Lisa Cartwright rightly critiques historians' repeated depiction of the X ray as the defining tool of modern professional medicine; see her Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, 1995), esp. chap. 5.
93. For a general overview of the professionalization of medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York, 1982). On the role of the X ray in professionalization in particular, see Joel Howell, Technology in the Hospital (Baltimore, 1995); Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge, 1978); and Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J., 1997). Lisa Cartwright rightly critiques historians' repeated depiction of the X ray as the defining tool of modern professional medicine; see her Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, 1995), esp. chap. 5.
94. For a general overview of the professionalization of medicine, see Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York, 1982). On the role of the X ray in professionalization in particular, see Joel Howell, Technology in the Hospital (Baltimore, 1995); Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge, 1978); and Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J., 1997). Lisa Cartwright rightly critiques historians' repeated depiction of the X ray as the defining tool of modern professional medicine; see her Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, 1995), esp. chap. 5.
95. George M. MacKee, "Hypertrichosis and the X-ray," Journal of Cutaneous Diseases including Syphilis 35 (1917); 177.
96. Carl Beck, Röntgen Ray Diagnosis and Therapy (New York, 1904), 377.
97. William Allen Pusey and Eugene Wilson Caldwell, Röntgen Rays in Therapeutics and Diagnosis (Philadelphia, 1904), 360-61. For a relevant study of physicians' exclusion of "cosmetic" practices and practitioners during this era of medical professionalization, see Beth Haiken's award-winning work on the controversy surrounding the tension between "reconstructive" (hence medically legitimate) and "cosmetic" (hence illegitimate) plastic surgery in American medicine in the first two decades of the twentieth century: "Plastic Surgery and American Beauty at 1921," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 68 (1994): 429-53.
98. William Allen Pusey and Eugene Wilson Caldwell, Röntgen Rays in Therapeutics and Diagnosis (Philadelphia, 1904), 360-61. For a relevant study of physicians' exclusion of "cosmetic" practices and practitioners during this era of medical professionalization, see Beth Haiken's award-winning work on the controversy surrounding the tension between "reconstructive" (hence medically legitimate) and "cosmetic" (hence illegitimate) plastic surgery in American medicine in the first two decades of the twentieth century: "Plastic Surgery and American Beauty at 1921," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 68 (1994): 429-53.
99. Although most professional physicians had disavowed X-ray epilation by 1918, it is important to note that this rejection was neither uniform nor total. As late as 1927 two physicians in Chicago offered an epilating dose of X-rays to a girl with a hairy chin and upper lip; see Mrs. P. G. Range to A. J. Cramp, 23 October 1927, folder 0314-03, AMA. Three years later, physician H. H. Hazen reported other colleagues still practicing X-ray epilation; see H. H. Hazen, "Injuries Resulting in Irradiation in Beauty Shops," American Journal of Roentgenology and Radium Therapy 23 (1930): 411. Some evidence hints at the medical use of cosmetic X-ray epilation as late as 1960. See Howard T. Behrman, "Diagnosis and Management of Hirsutism," Journal of the American Medical Association 172 (23 April 1960): 126.
100. Although most professional physicians had disavowed X-ray epilation by 1918, it is important to note that this rejection was neither uniform nor total. As late as 1927 two physicians in Chicago offered an epilating dose of X-rays to a girl with a hairy chin and upper lip; see Mrs. P. G. Range to A. J. Cramp, 23 October 1927, folder 0314-03, AMA. Three years later, physician H. H. Hazen reported other colleagues still practicing X-ray epilation; see H. H. Hazen, "Injuries Resulting in Irradiation in Beauty Shops," American Journal of Roentgenology and Radium Therapy 23 (1930): 411. Some evidence hints at the medical use of cosmetic X-ray epilation as late as 1960. See Howard T. Behrman, "Diagnosis and Management of Hirsutism," Journal of the American Medical Association 172 (23 April 1960): 126.
101. See, e.g., "With the Advancement of Science" (n. 28 above).
102. "Permanent Freedom from Unwanted Hair," advertisement for the Virginia Laboratories, Baltimore, folder 0317-01, AMA. Baltimore's Virginia Laboratories employed the "Marton Method" and used Marton's text and illustrations in many of their advertisements.
103. On the "strange powers" of the ray, see "Gone for Good" (n. 45 above).
104. Ibid.
105. "Be Your True Self: We will tell you how," advertisement for Frances A. Post, Inc., Cleveland, folder 0317-01, AMA.
106. H. Gellert [Secretary of Hamomar Institute] to "Madam," 1933, folder 0317-01, AMA.
107. Ibid.
108. Miss H. Steam to National Institute of Health, 5 July 1933, folder 0317-01, AMA; "BEAUTY: Woman's Most Precious Gift," advertisement for the Dermic Laboratories, San Francisco and Los Angeles, folder 0317-02, AMA.
109. M. J. Rush, "Hypertrichosis: The Marton Method, A Triumph of Chemistry," Medical Practice (March 1924): 956, reprint in folder 0317-01, AMA.
110. "Beauty is your Heritage" (n. 28 above).
111. "Permanent Freedom from Unwanted Hair" (n. 66 above).
112. Herman Goodman, "Correspondence," Journal of the American Medical Association 84 (9 May 1925) 1443; S. Dana Hubbard [City of New York Department of Public Health.] to A. J. Cramp, 8 January 1929, folder 0318-02, AMA; Dale Brown [Cleveland Better Business Bureau.] to A. J. Cramp, 29 July 1930, folder 0314-03; AMA. Of course, even if epilation salons recorded statistics on their clients' racial and ethnic backgrounds, these classifications would not necessarily coincide with clients' self-identifications, nor with contemporary racial and ethnic typologies; "race" is hardly stable.
113. Edward Oliver, "Dermatitis Due to 'Tricho Method,'" Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology 25 (1932): 948; D. E. Cleveland, "The Removal of Superfluous Hair by X-Rays," Canadian Medical Association Journal 59 (1948): 375.
114. Edward Oliver, "Dermatitis Due to 'Tricho Method,'" Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology 25 (1932): 948; D. E. Cleveland, "The Removal of Superfluous Hair by X-Rays," Canadian Medical Association Journal 59 (1948): 375.
115. B. O. Hailing, internal memorandum, 22 October 1925, folder 0318-01, AMA; Mulholland to AMA, 20 May 1930, AMA; Mrs. B. Tellef to AMA, 6 August 1926, folder 0318-01, AMA. Many women received more than forty treatments; one young woman received fourteen hundred exposures over five years; see Dorothy R. Kirk to Arthur Cramp, 14 December 1928, folder 0315-14, AMA.
116. Historians have scrutinized early-twentieth-century eugenic discourses at length. My understanding of this period is most influenced by Donna Haraway's "Teddy Bear Patriarchy: Taxidermy in the Garden of Eden, New York City, 1908-1936," in Primate Visions: Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science (New York, 1989), 26-58.
117. Mary F. Amerise to AMA, 18 May 1925, folder 0314-03, AMA.
118. Anne Steiman to AMA, 5 September 1933, folder 0317-01, AMA (text appears as in original document).
119. "A Flawless Skin" (n. 48 above).
120. Katherine Moore to AMA, 27 August 1931, folder 0318-02, AMA.
121. While one would err by suggesting that the Holocaust marked the end of eugenic thinking, the specter of the Nazi program did (and still does) trouble discussions of racial purity in the United States and Canada. See Robert Proctor's discussion of changes in postwar eugenic discourse in Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis (Cambridge, Mass., 1989), 303-8.
122. As Anja Hiddinga has noted, widespread public discussion of radiation hazards began only after 1945. See Hiddinga, "X-ray Technology in Obstetrics: Measuring Pelves at the Yale School of Medicine," in Medical Innovations in Historical Perspective, ed. John Pickstone (London, 1992), 143. For an extended discussion on the significance of Hiroshima, see M. Susan Lindee, Suffering Made Real: American Science and the Survivors at Hiroshima (Chicago, 1994). For thorough discussions of the history of radiation stan-dards in the United States, see Daniel Paul Serwer, "The Rise of Radiation Protection: Science, Medicine and Technology in Society, 1896-1935" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1976), and Gilbert F. Whittemore, "The National Committee on Radiation Protection, 1928-1960: From Professional Guidelines to Government Regulation" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1986).
123. As Anja Hiddinga has noted, widespread public discussion of radiation hazards began only after 1945. See Hiddinga, "X-ray Technology in Obstetrics: Measuring Pelves at the Yale School of Medicine," in Medical Innovations in Historical Perspective, ed. John Pickstone (London, 1992), 143. For an extended discussion on the significance of Hiroshima, see M. Susan Lindee, Suffering Made Real: American Science and the Survivors at Hiroshima (Chicago, 1994). For thorough discussions of the history of radiation stan-dards in the United States, see Daniel Paul Serwer, "The Rise of Radiation Protection: Science, Medicine and Technology in Society, 1896-1935" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1976), and Gilbert F. Whittemore, "The National Committee on Radiation Protection, 1928-1960: From Professional Guidelines to Government Regulation" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1986).
124. As Anja Hiddinga has noted, widespread public discussion of radiation hazards began only after 1945. See Hiddinga, "X-ray Technology in Obstetrics: Measuring Pelves at the Yale School of Medicine," in Medical Innovations in Historical Perspective, ed. John Pickstone (London, 1992), 143. For an extended discussion on the significance of Hiroshima, see M. Susan Lindee, Suffering Made Real: American Science and the Survivors at Hiroshima (Chicago, 1994). For thorough discussions of the history of radiation stan-dards in the United States, see Daniel Paul Serwer, "The Rise of Radiation Protection: Science, Medicine and Technology in Society, 1896-1935" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1976), and Gilbert F. Whittemore, "The National Committee on Radiation Protection, 1928-1960: From Professional Guidelines to Government Regulation" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1986).
125. As Anja Hiddinga has noted, widespread public discussion of radiation hazards began only after 1945. See Hiddinga, "X-ray Technology in Obstetrics: Measuring Pelves at the Yale School of Medicine," in Medical Innovations in Historical Perspective, ed. John Pickstone (London, 1992), 143. For an extended discussion on the significance of Hiroshima, see M. Susan Lindee, Suffering Made Real: American Science and the Survivors at Hiroshima (Chicago, 1994). For thorough discussions of the history of radiation stan-dards in the United States, see Daniel Paul Serwer, "The Rise of Radiation Protection: Science, Medicine and Technology in Society, 1896-1935" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1976), and Gilbert F. Whittemore, "The National Committee on Radiation Protection, 1928-1960: From Professional Guidelines to Government Regulation" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1986).
126. On the revision of licensing laws, see C. B. Pinkham to Max C. Starkhoff, 3 April 1928, folder 0318-02, AMA; C. B. Pinkham to A. J. Cramp, 22 January 1929, folder 0318-02, AMA. On the distribution of X-ray equipment, see A. J. Cramp to Howard Fox, 15 November 1929, folder 0318-02, AMA; Rollins H. Stevens to Arthur Cramp, 8 November 1929, folder 0318-02, AMA.
127. Better Business Bureau of Rochester to A. J. Cramp, 15 May 1930, folder 0318-02, AMA; Howard Fox to Arthur J. Cramp, 13 November 1929, folder 0318-02, AMA.
128. The disintegration of the Tricho Sales Corporation in 1930, for example, was influenced by a collective lawsuit organized by a group of seven New York women, all former clients. See S. Dana Hubbard [New York City Department of Health] to A. J. Cramp, 8 January 1929, folder 0318-02, AMA. See also S. Dana Hubbard to C. B. Pinkham, 8 January 1929, folder 0318-02, AMA.
129. New franchises that publicly advertised the technique were opening in Canada as late as 1948. See D. E. H. Cleveland, Canadian Medical Journal 59 (October 1948): 374. It is impossible to determine the extent of back-alley X-ray epilation. 90. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, "The Industrial Revolution in the Home: Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Century," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 1. Conversations with Robert D. Friedel have encouraged me to uncover the histories of unglamorous, everyday technologies.
130. New franchises that publicly advertised the technique were opening in Canada as late as 1948. See D. E. H. Cleveland, Canadian Medical Journal 59 (October 1948): 374. It is impossible to determine the extent of back-alley X-ray epilation. 90. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, "The Industrial Revolution in the Home: Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Century," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 1. Conversations with Robert D. Friedel have encouraged me to uncover the histories of unglamorous, everyday technologies.
131. See, e.g., Valerie Smith, "Reading the Intersection of Race and Gender in Narratives of Passing," diacritics 24 (summer/fall 1994): 43; Judith Butler, "Passing, Queering: Nella Larsen's Psychoanalytic Challenge," Bodies That Matter (New York, 1993), 167-85; Werner Sollers, Neither Black nor White Yet Both (New York, 1997). Also see Nella Larson, Passing (New York, reprint, 1969), and George S. Schuyler, Black No More: Being an Account of the Strange and Wonderful Workings of Science in the Land of the Free, A.D. 1933-1940 (New York, reprint, 1971).
132. See, e.g., Valerie Smith, "Reading the Intersection of Race and Gender in Narratives of Passing," diacritics 24 (summer/fall 1994): 43; Judith Butler, "Passing, Queering: Nella Larsen's Psychoanalytic Challenge," Bodies That Matter (New York, 1993), 167-85; Werner Sollers, Neither Black nor White Yet Both (New York, 1997). Also see Nella Larson, Passing (New York, reprint, 1969), and George S. Schuyler, Black No More: Being an Account of the Strange and Wonderful Workings of Science in the Land of the Free, A.D. 1933-1940 (New York, reprint, 1971).
133. See, e.g., Valerie Smith, "Reading the Intersection of Race and Gender in Narratives of Passing," diacritics 24 (summer/fall 1994): 43; Judith Butler, "Passing, Queering: Nella Larsen's Psychoanalytic Challenge," Bodies That Matter (New York, 1993), 167-85; Werner Sollers, Neither Black nor White Yet Both (New York, 1997). Also see Nella Larson, Passing (New York, reprint, 1969), and George S. Schuyler, Black No More: Being an Account of the Strange and Wonderful Workings of Science in the Land of the Free, A.D. 1933-1940 (New York, reprint, 1971).
134. See, e.g., Valerie Smith, "Reading the Intersection of Race and Gender in Narratives of Passing," diacritics 24 (summer/fall 1994): 43; Judith Butler, "Passing, Queering: Nella Larsen's Psychoanalytic Challenge," Bodies That Matter (New York, 1993), 167-85; Werner Sollers, Neither Black nor White Yet Both (New York, 1997). Also see Nella Larson, Passing (New York, reprint, 1969), and George S. Schuyler, Black No More: Being an Account of the Strange and Wonderful Workings of Science in the Land of the Free, A.D. 1933-1940 (New York, reprint, 1971).
135. See, e.g., Valerie Smith, "Reading the Intersection of Race and Gender in Narratives of Passing," diacritics 24 (summer/fall 1994): 43; Judith Butler, "Passing, Queering: Nella Larsen's Psychoanalytic Challenge," Bodies That Matter (New York, 1993), 167-85; Werner Sollers, Neither Black nor White Yet Both (New York, 1997). Also see Nella Larson, Passing (New York, reprint, 1969), and George S. Schuyler, Black No More: Being an Account of the Strange and Wonderful Workings of Science in the Land of the Free, A.D. 1933-1940 (New York, reprint, 1971).
136. For one recent exception to this trend, see Tanya Hart, "From 'Heated Forks' to Pressing Combs: African American Women, Technology, and Progressive-Era Beauty Culture" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the History of Technology, Baltimore, Maryland, October 1998).
137. See, for example, in William J. Hammer Collection, 1874-1935, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Washington D.C., "All Coons to Look White: College Professors Have Scheme to Solve Race Problem" (New York City Morning Telegraph, 22 January 1904), clipping in box 59, folder 2; "Radium and X-Ray Used to Beautify," Boston Herald, 8 May 1904, clipping in box 59, folder 3; "'Can the Ethiopian Change His Skin or the Leopard His Spots': Radium Light Turns Negro's Skin White," Boston Globe, 25 January 1904, box 60, folder 2; "Burning Out Birthmarks, Blemishes of the Skin and Even Turning a Negro White with the Magic Rays of Radium, the New Mystery of Science!" New York American, 10 January 1904, box 60, folder 2.
138. See, for example, in William J. Hammer Collection, 1874-1935, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Washington D.C., "All Coons to Look White: College Professors Have Scheme to Solve Race Problem" (New York City Morning Telegraph, 22 January 1904), clipping in box 59, folder 2; "Radium and X-Ray Used to Beautify," Boston Herald, 8 May 1904, clipping in box 59, folder 3; "'Can the Ethiopian Change His Skin or the Leopard His Spots': Radium Light Turns Negro's Skin White," Boston Globe, 25 January 1904, box 60, folder 2; "Burning Out Birthmarks, Blemishes of the Skin and Even Turning a Negro White with the Magic Rays of Radium, the New Mystery of Science!" New York American, 10 January 1904, box 60, folder 2.
139. See, for example, in William J. Hammer Collection, 1874-1935, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Washington D.C., "All Coons to Look White: College Professors Have Scheme to Solve Race Problem" (New York City Morning Telegraph, 22 January 1904), clipping in box 59, folder 2; "Radium and X-Ray Used to Beautify," Boston Herald, 8 May 1904, clipping in box 59, folder 3; "'Can the Ethiopian Change His Skin or the Leopard His Spots': Radium Light Turns Negro's Skin White," Boston Globe, 25 January 1904, box 60, folder 2; "Burning Out Birthmarks, Blemishes of the Skin and Even Turning a Negro White with the Magic Rays of Radium, the New Mystery of Science!" New York American, 10 January 1904, box 60, folder 2.
140. See, for example, in William J. Hammer Collection, 1874-1935, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Washington D.C., "All Coons to Look White: College Professors Have Scheme to Solve Race Problem" (New York City Morning Telegraph, 22 January 1904), clipping in box 59, folder 2; "Radium and X-Ray Used to Beautify," Boston Herald, 8 May 1904, clipping in box 59, folder 3; "'Can the Ethiopian Change His Skin or the Leopard His Spots': Radium Light Turns Negro's Skin White," Boston Globe, 25 January 1904, box 60, folder 2; "Burning Out Birthmarks, Blemishes of the Skin and Even Turning a Negro White with the Magic Rays of Radium, the New Mystery of Science!" New York American, 10 January 1904, box 60, folder 2.
141. See, for example, in William J. Hammer Collection, 1874-1935, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Washington D.C., "All Coons to Look White: College Professors Have Scheme to Solve Race Problem" (New York City Morning Telegraph, 22 January 1904), clipping in box 59, folder 2; "Radium and X-Ray Used to Beautify," Boston Herald, 8 May 1904, clipping in box 59, folder 3; "'Can the Ethiopian Change His Skin or the Leopard His Spots': Radium Light Turns Negro's Skin White," Boston Globe, 25 January 1904, box 60, folder 2; "Burning Out Birthmarks, Blemishes of the Skin and Even Turning a Negro White with the Magic Rays of Radium, the New Mystery of Science!" New York American, 10 January 1904, box 60, folder 2.
142. Helen L. Camp to AMA, 30 March 1954, folder 0318-02, AMA (text appears as in original document).