Career risk and reward from productivity

Public Personnel Management

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 453-471

  Berman, Evan M ^a   West, Jonathan P ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033196138     PISSN: 00910260     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009102609902800309     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. 1 Berman, E. Strategies for Productivity in Public and Nonprofit Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, forthcoming, 1988; Hammer, M. and J. Champy. Reengineering the Corporation. NY: Harper Business, 1993; Osborne, D. and T. Plastik. Banishing Bureaucracy. Reading, MA: Addisson-Wisley, 1997; Van Wart, M. The First Step in the Reinvention Procees: Assessment. Public Administration Review, 55: 429-438, 1995; In Quality Management Today: What Local Governments Need to know, edited by J. West. Washington, D.C.: International City/County Management Association, 1995; and Zajac and A. Al-Kazemi. Reinventing Government and Redefining Leadership Implications for Personnel Management in Government. Public Productivity and Management Review, 20: 372-383, 1997.
2. 1 Berman, E. Strategies for Productivity in Public and Nonprofit Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, forthcoming, 1988; Hammer, M. and J. Champy. Reengineering the Corporation. NY: Harper Business, 1993; Osborne, D. and T. Plastik. Banishing Bureaucracy. Reading, MA: Addisson-Wisley, 1997; Van Wart, M. The First Step in the Reinvention Procees: Assessment. Public Administration Review, 55: 429-438, 1995; In Quality Management Today: What Local Governments Need to know, edited by J. West. Washington, D.C.: International City/County Management Association, 1995; and Zajac and A. Al-Kazemi. Reinventing Government and Redefining Leadership Implications for Personnel Management in Government. Public Productivity and Management Review, 20: 372-383, 1997.
3. 1 Berman, E. Strategies for Productivity in Public and Nonprofit Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, forthcoming, 1988; Hammer, M. and J. Champy. Reengineering the Corporation. NY: Harper Business, 1993; Osborne, D. and T. Plastik. Banishing Bureaucracy. Reading, MA: Addisson-Wisley, 1997; Van Wart, M. The First Step in the Reinvention Procees: Assessment. Public Administration Review, 55: 429-438, 1995; In Quality Management Today: What Local Governments Need to know, edited by J. West. Washington, D.C.: International City/County Management Association, 1995; and Zajac and A. Al-Kazemi. Reinventing Government and Redefining Leadership Implications for Personnel Management in Government. Public Productivity and Management Review, 20: 372-383, 1997.
4. 1 Berman, E. Strategies for Productivity in Public and Nonprofit Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, forthcoming, 1988; Hammer, M. and J. Champy. Reengineering the Corporation. NY: Harper Business, 1993; Osborne, D. and T. Plastik. Banishing Bureaucracy. Reading, MA: Addisson-Wisley, 1997; Van Wart, M. The First Step in the Reinvention Procees: Assessment. Public Administration Review, 55: 429-438, 1995; In Quality Management Today: What Local Governments Need to know, edited by J. West. Washington, D.C.: International City/County Management Association, 1995; and Zajac and A. Al-Kazemi. Reinventing Government and Redefining Leadership Implications for Personnel Management in Government. Public Productivity and Management Review, 20: 372-383, 1997.
5. 1 Berman, E. Strategies for Productivity in Public and Nonprofit Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, forthcoming, 1988; Hammer, M. and J. Champy. Reengineering the Corporation. NY: Harper Business, 1993; Osborne, D. and T. Plastik. Banishing Bureaucracy. Reading, MA: Addisson-Wisley, 1997; Van Wart, M. The First Step in the Reinvention Procees: Assessment. Public Administration Review, 55: 429-438, 1995; In Quality Management Today: What Local Governments Need to know, edited by J. West. Washington, D.C.: International City/County Management Association, 1995; and Zajac and A. Al-Kazemi. Reinventing Government and Redefining Leadership Implications for Personnel Management in Government. Public Productivity and Management Review, 20: 372-383, 1997.
6. 1 Berman, E. Strategies for Productivity in Public and Nonprofit Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, forthcoming, 1988; Hammer, M. and J. Champy. Reengineering the Corporation. NY: Harper Business, 1993; Osborne, D. and T. Plastik. Banishing Bureaucracy. Reading, MA: Addisson-Wisley, 1997; Van Wart, M. The First Step in the Reinvention Procees: Assessment. Public Administration Review, 55: 429-438, 1995; In Quality Management Today: What Local Governments Need to know, edited by J. West. Washington, D.C.: International City/County Management Association, 1995; and Zajac and A. Al-Kazemi. Reinventing Government and Redefining Leadership Implications for Personnel Management in Government. Public Productivity and Management Review, 20: 372-383, 1997.
7. 2 Ammons, D. Productivity Barriers in the Public Sector. In Public Productivity Handbook, edited by M. Holzer. NY: Marcel Dekker, 1992: 117-138; Altshuler, A. and M. Zegans. Innovation and Public Management: Notes from the State House and City Hall. In Innovation in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behn. Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997: 68-82; Leadership and Innovation, edited by J. Doig and E. Hargrove. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1987; Lynn, L. Innovation and the Public Interest: Insights from the Private Sector. In Innovations in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behns: 83-103.
8. 2 Ammons, D. Productivity Barriers in the Public Sector. In Public Productivity Handbook, edited by M. Holzer. NY: Marcel Dekker, 1992: 117-138; Altshuler, A. and M. Zegans. Innovation and Public Management: Notes from the State House and City Hall. In Innovation in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behn. Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997: 68-82; Leadership and Innovation, edited by J. Doig and E. Hargrove. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1987; Lynn, L. Innovation and the Public Interest: Insights from the Private Sector. In Innovations in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behns: 83-103.
9. 2 Ammons, D. Productivity Barriers in the Public Sector. In Public Productivity Handbook, edited by M. Holzer. NY: Marcel Dekker, 1992: 117-138; Altshuler, A. and M. Zegans. Innovation and Public Management: Notes from the State House and City Hall. In Innovation in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behn. Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997: 68-82; Leadership and Innovation, edited by J. Doig and E. Hargrove. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1987; Lynn, L. Innovation and the Public Interest: Insights from the Private Sector. In Innovations in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behns: 83-103.
10. 2 Ammons, D. Productivity Barriers in the Public Sector. In Public Productivity Handbook, edited by M. Holzer. NY: Marcel Dekker, 1992: 117-138; Altshuler, A. and M. Zegans. Innovation and Public Management: Notes from the State House and City Hall. In Innovation in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behn. Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997: 68-82; Leadership and Innovation, edited by J. Doig and E. Hargrove. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1987; Lynn, L. Innovation and the Public Interest: Insights from the Private Sector. In Innovations in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behns: 83-103.
11. 3 See Denhardt, R. The Pursuit of Significance. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1993; and Public Productivity Handbook, edited by M. Holzer.
12. 3 See Denhardt, R. The Pursuit of Significance. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1993; and Public Productivity Handbook, edited by M. Holzer.
13. 4 Cooper, T. and J. Doig. Austin Tobin and Robert Moses: Power, Progress, and Individual Dignity. In Exemplary Public Administrators, edited by T. Cooper and D. Wright. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992: 108-138; Hart, D. and D. Hart. George C. Marshall and J. Edgar Hoover: Noblesse Oblige and Self-Serving Power. Ibid. 80-107; Lewis, E. Public Entrepreneurship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Moe, R. The 'Reinventing Government' Exercise; Misinterpreting the Problem. Public Administration Review, 54: 111-122,1994; Stever, J. The End of Public Administration. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational Publishers, Inc., 1988; and Terry, L. Why We Should Abandon the Misconceived Quest to Reconcile Public Entrepreneurship with Democracy. Public Administration Review, 53: 393-395, 1993.
14. 4 Cooper, T. and J. Doig. Austin Tobin and Robert Moses: Power, Progress, and Individual Dignity. In Exemplary Public Administrators, edited by T. Cooper and D. Wright. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992: 108-138; Hart, D. and D. Hart. George C. Marshall and J. Edgar Hoover: Noblesse Oblige and Self-Serving Power. Ibid. 80-107; Lewis, E. Public Entrepreneurship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Moe, R. The 'Reinventing Government' Exercise; Misinterpreting the Problem. Public Administration Review, 54: 111-122,1994; Stever, J. The End of Public Administration. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational Publishers, Inc., 1988; and Terry, L. Why We Should Abandon the Misconceived Quest to Reconcile Public Entrepreneurship with Democracy. Public Administration Review, 53: 393-395, 1993.
15. 4 Cooper, T. and J. Doig. Austin Tobin and Robert Moses: Power, Progress, and Individual Dignity. In Exemplary Public Administrators, edited by T. Cooper and D. Wright. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992: 108-138; Hart, D. and D. Hart. George C. Marshall and J. Edgar Hoover: Noblesse Oblige and Self-Serving Power. Ibid. 80-107; Lewis, E. Public Entrepreneurship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Moe, R. The 'Reinventing Government' Exercise; Misinterpreting the Problem. Public Administration Review, 54: 111-122,1994; Stever, J. The End of Public Administration. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational Publishers, Inc., 1988; and Terry, L. Why We Should Abandon the Misconceived Quest to Reconcile Public Entrepreneurship with Democracy. Public Administration Review, 53: 393-395, 1993.
16. 4 Cooper, T. and J. Doig. Austin Tobin and Robert Moses: Power, Progress, and Individual Dignity. In Exemplary Public Administrators, edited by T. Cooper and D. Wright. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992: 108-138; Hart, D. and D. Hart. George C. Marshall and J. Edgar Hoover: Noblesse Oblige and Self-Serving Power. Ibid. 80-107; Lewis, E. Public Entrepreneurship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Moe, R. The 'Reinventing Government' Exercise; Misinterpreting the Problem. Public Administration Review, 54: 111-122,1994; Stever, J. The End of Public Administration. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational Publishers, Inc., 1988; and Terry, L. Why We Should Abandon the Misconceived Quest to Reconcile Public Entrepreneurship with Democracy. Public Administration Review, 53: 393-395, 1993.
17. 4 Cooper, T. and J. Doig. Austin Tobin and Robert Moses: Power, Progress, and Individual Dignity. In Exemplary Public Administrators, edited by T. Cooper and D. Wright. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992: 108-138; Hart, D. and D. Hart. George C. Marshall and J. Edgar Hoover: Noblesse Oblige and Self-Serving Power. Ibid. 80-107; Lewis, E. Public Entrepreneurship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Moe, R. The 'Reinventing Government' Exercise; Misinterpreting the Problem. Public Administration Review, 54: 111-122,1994; Stever, J. The End of Public Administration. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational Publishers, Inc., 1988; and Terry, L. Why We Should Abandon the Misconceived Quest to Reconcile Public Entrepreneurship with Democracy. Public Administration Review, 53: 393-395, 1993.
18. 4 Cooper, T. and J. Doig. Austin Tobin and Robert Moses: Power, Progress, and Individual Dignity. In Exemplary Public Administrators, edited by T. Cooper and D. Wright. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992: 108-138; Hart, D. and D. Hart. George C. Marshall and J. Edgar Hoover: Noblesse Oblige and Self-Serving Power. Ibid. 80-107; Lewis, E. Public Entrepreneurship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989; Moe, R. The 'Reinventing Government' Exercise; Misinterpreting the Problem. Public Administration Review, 54: 111-122,1994; Stever, J. The End of Public Administration. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational Publishers, Inc., 1988; and Terry, L. Why We Should Abandon the Misconceived Quest to Reconcile Public Entrepreneurship with Democracy. Public Administration Review, 53: 393-395, 1993.
19. 5 West, J. and E. Berman. Human Resource Strategies in Local Government: A Survey of Progress and Future Directions. American Review of Public Administration, 23: 279-297, 1993.
20. 6 Leslie, R.L. Using External Awards Competitions to Promote Internal Innovation and Improve Productivity, Morale and Public Perception of a Public Agency. Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society for Public Administration, July, 1997; Grady, D.O. and K.S. Chi. Innovators in State Government. In Book of the States, Lexington, KY: Council of State Governments, 1994; Holzer, M. editorial, Public Productivity and Management Review, 19: 5-8, 1995; Starling, G. The Changing Environment of Business. Cincinnati: International Thompson Publishing.
21. 6 Leslie, R.L. Using External Awards Competitions to Promote Internal Innovation and Improve Productivity, Morale and Public Perception of a Public Agency. Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society for Public Administration, July, 1997; Grady, D.O. and K.S. Chi. Innovators in State Government. In Book of the States, Lexington, KY: Council of State Governments, 1994; Holzer, M. editorial, Public Productivity and Management Review, 19: 5-8, 1995; Starling, G. The Changing Environment of Business. Cincinnati: International Thompson Publishing.
22. 6 Leslie, R.L. Using External Awards Competitions to Promote Internal Innovation and Improve Productivity, Morale and Public Perception of a Public Agency. Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society for Public Administration, July, 1997; Grady, D.O. and K.S. Chi. Innovators in State Government. In Book of the States, Lexington, KY: Council of State Governments, 1994; Holzer, M. editorial, Public Productivity and Management Review, 19: 5-8, 1995; Starling, G. The Changing Environment of Business. Cincinnati: International Thompson Publishing.
23. 6 Leslie, R.L. Using External Awards Competitions to Promote Internal Innovation and Improve Productivity, Morale and Public Perception of a Public Agency. Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society for Public Administration, July, 1997; Grady, D.O. and K.S. Chi. Innovators in State Government. In Book of the States, Lexington, KY: Council of State Governments, 1994; Holzer, M. editorial, Public Productivity and Management Review, 19: 5-8, 1995; Starling, G. The Changing Environment of Business. Cincinnati: International Thompson Publishing.
24. 7 See Cozetto, D., T. Pedelski, and T. Tipple. Public Personnel Administration: Confronting the Challenges of Change. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996; Public Personnel Administration, edited by Hays, S. and R. Keamey. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995; and Klingner, D. and J. Nalbandian, Public Personnel Management: Contexts and Strategies, 4th ed, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.
25. 7 See Cozetto, D., T. Pedelski, and T. Tipple. Public Personnel Administration: Confronting the Challenges of Change. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996; Public Personnel Administration, edited by Hays, S. and R. Keamey. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995; and Klingner, D. and J. Nalbandian, Public Personnel Management: Contexts and Strategies, 4th ed, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.
26. 7 See Cozetto, D., T. Pedelski, and T. Tipple. Public Personnel Administration: Confronting the Challenges of Change. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996; Public Personnel Administration, edited by Hays, S. and R. Keamey. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995; and Klingner, D. and J. Nalbandian, Public Personnel Management: Contexts and Strategies, 4th ed, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.
27. 8 Altshuler and Zegans, Innovation in American Government.
28. 9 Altshuler and Zegans, Innovation in American Government, 79.
29. 10 Van Wart, M. and J. Pfister. TQM in Local Government: Case Examples. In Quality Management..., edited by J. West, 187-205.
30. 11 Friedman, L. Public Sector Innovations and Their Diffusion: Economic Tools and Managerial Tasks. In Innovations in American Government, edited by A. Altshuler and R. Behn. Washington, D.C.: Brookings: 332-359, 1997.
31. 12 Friedman, 345-346. One concern, however, is that overzealous pursuit of reputation may cause some managers to only give lip service to productivity improvement. Doing so allows managers to claims credit for undertaking efforts while minimizing the risk and persistence that is involved in affecting change. There is some evidence that new strategies do result in a fair amount of lip service as noted by Berman, E. and J. West, Municipal Commitment to Total Quality Management, Public Administration Review, 55: 57-66, 1995; and Miller, K., Total Quality Management and State Governments: Are We Reaching the Fair Trial Point?, Unpublished paper presented at the annual SECOPA Conference, Cocoa Beach, FL, 1993. However, many organizations want to see results, not only reputation enhancement.
32. 12 Friedman, 345-346. One concern, however, is that overzealous pursuit of reputation may cause some managers to only give lip service to productivity improvement. Doing so allows managers to claims credit for undertaking efforts while minimizing the risk and persistence that is involved in affecting change. There is some evidence that new strategies do result in a fair amount of lip service as noted by Berman, E. and J. West, Municipal Commitment to Total Quality Management, Public Administration Review, 55: 57-66, 1995; and Miller, K., Total Quality Management and State Governments: Are We Reaching the Fair Trial Point?, Unpublished paper presented at the annual SECOPA Conference, Cocoa Beach, FL, 1993. However, many organizations want to see results, not only reputation enhancement.
33. 13 Starling, G. The Changing Environment of Business. Cincinnati, OH: International Thompson Publishing.
34. 14 Van Wart, M. The First Step in the Reinvention process: Assessment. Public Administration Review, 55: 429-438, 1996; Bryson, J. and B. Crosby. Leadership for the Common Good. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1992.
35. 14 Van Wart, M. The First Step in the Reinvention process: Assessment. Public Administration Review, 55: 429-438, 1996; Bryson, J. and B. Crosby. Leadership for the Common Good. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1992.
36. 15 Ammons, D. Accountability for Performance: Measurement and Monitoring in Local Government. Washington, DC: International City/County Management Association, 1995; Denhardt, R. Pursuit...; and Walters, J. Performance and Pain. Governing, 10, 1997.
37. 15 Ammons, D. Accountability for Performance: Measurement and Monitoring in Local Government. Washington, DC: International City/County Management Association, 1995; Denhardt, R. Pursuit...; and Walters, J. Performance and Pain. Governing, 10, 1997.
38. 15 Ammons, D. Accountability for Performance: Measurement and Monitoring in Local Government. Washington, DC: International City/County Management Association, 1995; Denhardt, R. Pursuit...; and Walters, J. Performance and Pain. Governing, 10, 1997.
39. 16 Morgan, D. and R. England. Managing Urban America, 4th ed. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1996; Svara, J. Facilitative Leadership in Local Government. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1994.
40. 16 Morgan, D. and R. England. Managing Urban America, 4th ed. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1996; Svara, J. Facilitative Leadership in Local Government. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1994.
41. 17 Weschler, L.F. and M. Vanacour. City Managers' Personal, Professional and Political Networks: Mentors and Coaches as Support in Adaptive Management. Unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society for Public Administration, Philadelphia, PA, July 1997.
42. 18 Ibid.
43. 19 Ban, C. How Do Public Managers Manage? Bureaucratic Constraints, Organizational Culture, and the Potential for Reform. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1995.
44. 20 Weschler and Vanacour, 1997; Ban, 1995.
45. 20 Weschler and Vanacour, 1997; Ban, 1995.
46. 21 Weschler and Vanacour, Ibid.: 4.
47. 22 See Bardwick, J. Danger in the Comfort Zone. New York, NY: AMACOM, 1995; and West, J. and E. Berman. Administrative Creativity in Local Government. Public Productivity and Management Review, 20: 446-458, 1997.
48. 22 See Bardwick, J. Danger in the Comfort Zone. New York, NY: AMACOM, 1995; and West, J. and E. Berman. Administrative Creativity in Local Government. Public Productivity and Management Review, 20: 446-458, 1997.
49. 23 Epstein, P. Measuring and Analyzing the Productivity of Professionals and Managers. In Public Productivity..., edited by M. Holzer, 335-368; and Epstein, P., E. Greenberg, and M. Their. Improving Productivity of Professionals and Managers. In Public Productivity..., edited by M. Holzer, 369-400.
50. 23 Epstein, P. Measuring and Analyzing the Productivity of Professionals and Managers. In Public Productivity..., edited by M. Holzer, 335-368; and Epstein, P., E. Greenberg, and M. Their. Improving Productivity of Professionals and Managers. In Public Productivity..., edited by M. Holzer, 369-400.
51. 24 Behn, R. The Dilemmas of Innovation in American Government. In Altshuler and Behn. Innovation..., 3-37; Altshuler and Zegans. Innovation in Public Management...; Moore, M., M. Sparrow, and W. Spelman. Innovation in Policing: From Production Lines to Jobs Shops. In Innovations, edited by Altshuler and Behn, 274-300; Schall, E. Notes from a Reflective Practitioner of Innovation. Ibid., 360-377; and Zegans, M. The Dilemmas of the Modern Public Manager: Satisfying the Virtues of Scientific and Innovative Management. Ibid., 104-118.
52. 24 Behn, R. The Dilemmas of Innovation in American Government. In Altshuler and Behn. Innovation..., 3-37; Altshuler and Zegans. Innovation in Public Management...; Moore, M., M. Sparrow, and W. Spelman. Innovation in Policing: From Production Lines to Jobs Shops. In Innovations, edited by Altshuler and Behn, 274-300; Schall, E. Notes from a Reflective Practitioner of Innovation. Ibid., 360-377; and Zegans, M. The Dilemmas of the Modern Public Manager: Satisfying the Virtues of Scientific and Innovative Management. Ibid., 104-118.
53. 24 Behn, R. The Dilemmas of Innovation in American Government. In Altshuler and Behn. Innovation..., 3-37; Altshuler and Zegans. Innovation in Public Management...; Moore, M., M. Sparrow, and W. Spelman. Innovation in Policing: From Production Lines to Jobs Shops. In Innovations, edited by Altshuler and Behn, 274-300; Schall, E. Notes from a Reflective Practitioner of Innovation. Ibid., 360-377; and Zegans, M. The Dilemmas of the Modern Public Manager: Satisfying the Virtues of Scientific and Innovative Management. Ibid., 104-118.
54. 24 Behn, R. The Dilemmas of Innovation in American Government. In Altshuler and Behn. Innovation..., 3-37; Altshuler and Zegans. Innovation in Public Management...; Moore, M., M. Sparrow, and W. Spelman. Innovation in Policing: From Production Lines to Jobs Shops. In Innovations, edited by Altshuler and Behn, 274-300; Schall, E. Notes from a Reflective Practitioner of Innovation. Ibid., 360-377; and Zegans, M. The Dilemmas of the Modern Public Manager: Satisfying the Virtues of Scientific and Innovative Management. Ibid., 104-118.
55. 24 Behn, R. The Dilemmas of Innovation in American Government. In Altshuler and Behn. Innovation..., 3-37; Altshuler and Zegans. Innovation in Public Management...; Moore, M., M. Sparrow, and W. Spelman. Innovation in Policing: From Production Lines to Jobs Shops. In Innovations, edited by Altshuler and Behn, 274-300; Schall, E. Notes from a Reflective Practitioner of Innovation. Ibid., 360-377; and Zegans, M. The Dilemmas of the Modern Public Manager: Satisfying the Virtues of Scientific and Innovative Management. Ibid., 104-118.
56. 25 Friedman, op. cit.
57. 26 Friedman. Public Sector...
58. 27 International City/County Management Association. Municipal Yearbook 1996. Washington, DC: Author, 1996.
59. 28 Berman, E. Dealing with Cynical Citizens. Public Administration Review, 57: 105-112, 1997.
60. 29 Race is not a survey item.
61. 30 This finding is, unsurprisingly, corroborated with years of experience in local government. For example, whereas 20.7% of respondents with more than 17 years experience somewhat agree, agree, or strongly disagree with the statement that "productivity improvement is a risky way of advancing one's career," only 9.8% of respondents who provide these responses have worked fewer than 17 years.
62. 31 One reviewer noted the possibility of labor relations as a moderator variable. This variable is not part of the survey, and thus we have no way of directly testing for this effect. However, the survey does address organizational cultures, which may reflect the state of labor relations. See further.