Food, hygiene, and the laboratory. A short history of food poisoning in Britain, circa 1850-1950

Social History of Medicine

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 293-311

  Hardy, Anne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bacteriology; Food safety; Hygiene; Meat; Salmonellas; Statistics

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD CONTROL; FOOD HANDLING; FOOD POISONING; HISTORY; HUMAN; HYGIENE; LABORATORY; PUBLIC HEALTH; UNITED KINGDOM;

FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD HANDLING; FOOD INSPECTION; FOOD MICROBIOLOGY; FOOD POISONING; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; HYGIENE; LABORATORIES; PUBLIC HEALTH;

EID: 0033176185     PISSN: 0951631X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/shm/12.2.293     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. J. Glaisher, 'Remarks on the Meteorology of the Year 1880', Registrar-General's Annual Report, PP, 1882, XIX, pp. xxxiv-v.
2. E. Ballard, 'On an Acute Specific Disease', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1881, XLVI, Appendix A no 5, pp. 752-83.
3. Ibid., p. 764.
4. Ibid., pp. 765-6.
5. Chief Medical Officer's Annual Report, Ministry of Health, 1935, p. 146.
6. E. B. Dewberry, Food Poisoning. Food-borne Infection and Intoxication (London, 1959), pp. 6-7.
7. See J. Buckenham, 'Extraordinary Case of Poisoning' (letter), Lancet, ii (1862), 297; J. Lowe, 'Symptoms of Poisoning from Eating Game' (letter), ibid., 347; E. Crisp, 'The Meat Pie' (letter), ibid., i (1863), 48-9; E. Mackey, 'Symptoms of Irritant Poisoning from Pork Brawn', British Medical Journal, i (1873), 533. The latter noted specifically, '[Such cases] deserve record, because they have a medico-legal interest, and may be required for reference and precedent'.
8. See J. Buckenham, 'Extraordinary Case of Poisoning' (letter), Lancet, ii (1862), 297; J. Lowe, 'Symptoms of Poisoning from Eating Game' (letter), ibid., 347; E. Crisp, 'The Meat Pie' (letter), ibid., i (1863), 48-9; E. Mackey, 'Symptoms of Irritant Poisoning from Pork Brawn', British Medical Journal, i (1873), 533. The latter noted specifically, '[Such cases] deserve record, because they have a medico-legal interest, and may be required for reference and precedent'.
9. See J. Buckenham, 'Extraordinary Case of Poisoning' (letter), Lancet, ii (1862), 297; J. Lowe, 'Symptoms of Poisoning from Eating Game' (letter), ibid., 347; E. Crisp, 'The Meat Pie' (letter), ibid., i (1863), 48-9; E. Mackey, 'Symptoms of Irritant Poisoning from Pork Brawn', British Medical Journal, i (1873), 533. The latter noted specifically, '[Such cases] deserve record, because they have a medico-legal interest, and may be required for reference and precedent'.
10. See J. Buckenham, 'Extraordinary Case of Poisoning' (letter), Lancet, ii (1862), 297; J. Lowe, 'Symptoms of Poisoning from Eating Game' (letter), ibid., 347; E. Crisp, 'The Meat Pie' (letter), ibid., i (1863), 48-9; E. Mackey, 'Symptoms of Irritant Poisoning from Pork Brawn', British Medical Journal, i (1873), 533. The latter noted specifically, '[Such cases] deserve record, because they have a medico-legal interest, and may be required for reference and precedent'.
11. See, for example, H. E. Durham, 'The Present Knowledge of Outbreaks of Meat Poisoning', British Medical Journal, i (1898), 1797-801; K. F. Peckham, 'An Outbreak of Pork Pie Poisoning at Derby' Journal of Hygiene, 22 (1923-24), 69-76.
12. See, for example, H. E. Durham, 'The Present Knowledge of Outbreaks of Meat Poisoning', British Medical Journal, i (1898), 1797-801; K. F. Peckham, 'An Outbreak of Pork Pie Poisoning at Derby' Journal of Hygiene, 22 (1923-24), 69-76.
13. In his annual report for 1889, the Chief Medical Officer, George Buchanan, first referred specifically to food poisoning. His report included the remark, 'The phenomena that we speak of as "food poisoning" . . .': Medical Officer's Annual Report for 1889, Local Government Board, PP, 1890, XXXIV, pp. 19-20. A year later, Edward Ballard referred to 'so-called "food poisoning"': ibid., PP, 1890-91, XXXIV, Appendix 21, p. 245.
14. In his annual report for 1889, the Chief Medical Officer, George Buchanan, first referred specifically to food poisoning. His report included the remark, 'The phenomena that we speak of as "food poisoning" . . .': Medical Officer's Annual Report for 1889, Local Government Board, PP, 1890, XXXIV, pp. 19-20. A year later, Edward Ballard referred to 'so-called "food poisoning"': ibid., PP, 1890-91, XXXIV, Appendix 21, p. 245.
15. See, for example, W. G. Savage, Food Poisoning and Food Infections (Cambridge, 1920), p. vii.
16. Dewberry, Food Poisoning, pp. 9-10. A trawl through the Lancet and the British Medical Journal failed to turn up reports on the German investigations; neither George Buchanan, the Chief Medical Officer, nor Ballard himself, mention the earlier German literature in their discussions of the Welbeck case. The 1880 report of the Pathological Society's Pyaemia Committee similarly made no mention of German research in this area: Lancet, i (1880), 225. The earliest German work on this subject (1876-80), that of Bollinger, District Veterinarian of Dinter, Saxony, appears not to have been published, but communicated at scientific meetings: R. Ostertag, Handbook of Meat Inspection, translated by E. V. Wilcox (London, 1904), pp. 712-18. Dewberry, for example, mentions Bollinger's work, but gives no reference for it.
17. Dewberry, Food Poisoning, pp. 9-10. A trawl through the Lancet and the British Medical Journal failed to turn up reports on the German investigations; neither George Buchanan, the Chief Medical Officer, nor Ballard himself, mention the earlier German literature in their discussions of the Welbeck case. The 1880 report of the Pathological Society's Pyaemia Committee similarly made no mention of German research in this area: Lancet, i (1880), 225. The earliest German work on this subject (1876-80), that of Bollinger, District Veterinarian of Dinter, Saxony, appears not to have been published, but communicated at scientific meetings: R. Ostertag, Handbook of Meat Inspection, translated by E. V. Wilcox (London, 1904), pp. 712-18. Dewberry, for example, mentions Bollinger's work, but gives no reference for it.
18. Dewberry, Food Poisoning, pp. 9-10. A trawl through the Lancet and the British Medical Journal failed to turn up reports on the German investigations; neither George Buchanan, the Chief Medical Officer, nor Ballard himself, mention the earlier German literature in their discussions of the Welbeck case. The 1880 report of the Pathological Society's Pyaemia Committee similarly made no mention of German research in this area: Lancet, i (1880), 225. The earliest German work on this subject (1876-80), that of Bollinger, District Veterinarian of Dinter, Saxony, appears not to have been published, but communicated at scientific meetings: R. Ostertag, Handbook of Meat Inspection, translated by E. V. Wilcox (London, 1904), pp. 712-18. Dewberry, for example, mentions Bollinger's work, but gives no reference for it.
19. 'Sir George Buchanan', Public Health, 7 (1894-95), 322.
20. R. C. Latham and W. Matthews (eds), The Diary of Samuel Pepys (London, 1971), vol. 6, p. 244; see also vol. 5, pp. 171, 249; Tobias Smollett, Humphrey Clinker (Harmondsworth, 1967), pp. 151-3.
21. R. C. Latham and W. Matthews (eds), The Diary of Samuel Pepys (London, 1971), vol. 6, p. 244; see also vol. 5, pp. 171, 249; Tobias Smollett, Humphrey Clinker (Harmondsworth, 1967), pp. 151-3.
22. R. C. Latham and W. Matthews (eds), The Diary of Samuel Pepys (London, 1971), vol. 6, p. 244; see also vol. 5, pp. 171, 249; Tobias Smollett, Humphrey Clinker (Harmondsworth, 1967), pp. 151-3.
23. O. H. Peters, Epidemic Diarrhoea (Cambridge, 1911), p. 22.
24. Ibid., p. 83.
25. H. Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor (Toronto and London, 1975), vol. 1, pp. 57-8.
26. J. Haddon, 'Poisoning by Beetroot' (letter), British Medical Journal, ii (1914), 155.
27. W. G. Savage and P. Bruce White, 'Food Poisoning', Medical Research Council, Spedal Report Series, no. 92 (1925), pp. 9-10.
28. Mayhew, London Labour, vol. 1, pp. 158-78; E. Ballard, 'On a Series of Cases of Acute Specific Disease (Similar to that Observed in the Welbeck Outbreak) Following on the Eating of Hot Baked Pork', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1881, XLVI, Appendix A no 6, pp. 774-87; J. Walton, Fish and Chips and the British Working Class (Leicester, 1992), pp. 26-44.
29. Mayhew, London Labour, vol. 1, pp. 158-78; E. Ballard, 'On a Series of Cases of Acute Specific Disease (Similar to that Observed in the Welbeck Outbreak) Following on the Eating of Hot Baked Pork', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1881, XLVI, Appendix A no 6, pp. 774-87; J. Walton, Fish and Chips and the British Working Class (Leicester, 1992), pp. 26-44.
30. Mayhew, London Labour, vol. 1, pp. 158-78; E. Ballard, 'On a Series of Cases of Acute Specific Disease (Similar to that Observed in the Welbeck Outbreak) Following on the Eating of Hot Baked Pork', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1881, XLVI, Appendix A no 6, pp. 774-87; J. Walton, Fish and Chips and the British Working Class (Leicester, 1992), pp. 26-44.
31. Mayhew, London Labour, vol. 1, p. 52.
32. W. G. Savage, Food Poisoning, p. 5; see also R. Perren, The Meat Trade in Britain 1840-1914 (London, 1978), chs 3, 6.
33. W. G. Savage, Food Poisoning, p. 5; see also R. Perren, The Meat Trade in Britain 1840-1914 (London, 1978), chs 3, 6.
34. M. Greenwood, Epidemics and Crowd Diseases (London, 1935), p. 157.
35. Chief Medical Officer's Annual Report, Ministry of Health (1945), p. 29.
36. J. P. Watt, 'Typhoid Carriers in Aberdeenshire', Journal of Hygiene, 22 (1923-24), 425.
37. P. Huck, 'Infant Mortality in Nine Industrial Parishes in Northern England, 1813-1836', Population Studies, 48 (1994), 513-26.
38. Savage and Bruce White, 'Food Poisoning', p. 23.
39. R. I. Woods, J. Woodward, and P. Watterson, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921', Part 1, Population Studies, 42 (1988), 343-66; Part 2, ibid., 43 (1989), 113-32; see also N. Williams and C. Galley, 'Urban-Rural Differentials in Infant Mortality in Victorian England', ibid., 49 (1995), 401-20.
40. R. I. Woods, J. Woodward, and P. Watterson, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921', Part 1, Population Studies, 42 (1988), 343-66; Part 2, ibid., 43 (1989), 113-32; see also N. Williams and C. Galley, 'Urban-Rural Differentials in Infant Mortality in Victorian England', ibid., 49 (1995), 401-20.
41. R. I. Woods, J. Woodward, and P. Watterson, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921', Part 1, Population Studies, 42 (1988), 343-66; Part 2, ibid., 43 (1989), 113-32; see also N. Williams and C. Galley, 'Urban-Rural Differentials in Infant Mortality in Victorian England', ibid., 49 (1995), 401-20.
42. W. Johnston, 'The Etiology of Summer Diarrhoea', Transactions of the Epidemiological Society, 1 (1876-81), 203-4.
43. Peters, Epidemic Diarrhoea, pp. 11-12, 166; see also A. Newsholme, 'A Contribution to the Study of Epidemic Diarrhoea', Public Health, 12 (1899-1900), 167-8; idem, 'Domestic Infection in Relation to Epidemic Diarrhoea', Journal of Hygiene, 6 (1906), 139-48.
44. Peters, Epidemic Diarrhoea, pp. 11-12, 166; see also A. Newsholme, 'A Contribution to the Study of Epidemic Diarrhoea', Public Health, 12 (1899-1900), 167-8; idem, 'Domestic Infection in Relation to Epidemic Diarrhoea', Journal of Hygiene, 6 (1906), 139-48.
45. Peters, Epidemic Diarrhoea, pp. 11-12, 166; see also A. Newsholme, 'A Contribution to the Study of Epidemic Diarrhoea', Public Health, 12 (1899-1900), 167-8; idem, 'Domestic Infection in Relation to Epidemic Diarrhoea', Journal of Hygiene, 6 (1906), 139-48.
46. E. Ballard, 'Report to the Local Government Board upon the Causation of the Annual Mortality from "Diarrhoea" which is Observed Principally in the Summer Season of the Year', Diarrhoea and Diphtheria. Supplement in Continuation of the Report of the Medical Officer for 1887, PP, 1899, XXXV, p. 10. See also Newsholme, 'A Contribution', pp. 166-7.
47. E. Ballard, 'Report to the Local Government Board upon the Causation of the Annual Mortality from "Diarrhoea" which is Observed Principally in the Summer Season of the Year', Diarrhoea and Diphtheria. Supplement in Continuation of the Report of the Medical Officer for 1887, PP, 1899, XXXV, p. 10. See also Newsholme, 'A Contribution', pp. 166-7.
48. S. Delépine, 'The Bearing of Outbreaks of Food Poisoning upon the Etiology of Epidemic Diarrhoea', Journal of Hygiene, 3 (1903), 74.
49. Ibid., p. 70; J. Niven, 'Summer Diarrhoea and Enteric Fever', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 3.2 (1909-10), 133.
50. Ibid., p. 70; J. Niven, 'Summer Diarrhoea and Enteric Fever', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 3.2 (1909-10), 133.
51. I. H. Buchanan, 'Infant Feeding, Sanitation, and Diarrhoea in Colliery Communities, 1880-1911', in D. J. Oddy and D. S. Miller (eds), Diet and Health in Modern Britain (London, 1985), pp. 148-77.
52. See, for example, Medical Officer's Annual Report, London County Council (1907), p. 63.
53. P. J. Atkins, 'White Poison?: The Social Consequences of Milk Consumption in London, 1850-1939', Social History of Medicine, 5 (1992), 207-28; D. Dwork, 'The Milk Option: An Aspect of the Infant Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1908', Medical History, 31 (1987), 51-69.
54. P. J. Atkins, 'White Poison?: The Social Consequences of Milk Consumption in London, 1850-1939', Social History of Medicine, 5 (1992), 207-28; D. Dwork, 'The Milk Option: An Aspect of the Infant Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1908', Medical History, 31 (1987), 51-69.
55. Dewberry, Food Poisoning, p. 10.
56. W. Hunter, 'The Serum Diagnosis of Typhoid Fever', Journal of State Medicine, 8 (1900), 688-9.
57. H. E. Durham, 'On an Epidemic of Gastro-enteritis Associated with the Presence of a Variety of the Bacillus Enteritidis (Gaertner) and with Positive Sero-diagnostic Evidence (in vivo and in vitro),' British Medical Journal, ii (1898), 600-1; idem, 'On Infections by Unsound Meat, More Especially with Regard to the Bacillus enteritidis (Gartner)', Transactions of the Pathological Society, 50 (1899), 262-8.
58. H. E. Durham, 'On an Epidemic of Gastro-enteritis Associated with the Presence of a Variety of the Bacillus Enteritidis (Gaertner) and with Positive Sero-diagnostic Evidence (in vivo and in vitro),' British Medical Journal, ii (1898), 600-1; idem, 'On Infections by Unsound Meat, More Especially with Regard to the Bacillus enteritidis (Gartner)', Transactions of the Pathological Society, 50 (1899), 262-8.
59. H. E. Durham, 'On the Serum Diagnosis of Typhoid Fever, with Especial Reference to the Bacillus of Gartner and its Allies', Lancet, i (1898), 154-7.
60. See G. S. Buchanan, in discussion of F. A. Bainbridge, 'The Aetiology and Epidemiology of Paratyphoid Fever and "Food-poisoning"', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 4.2 (1910-11), 63; Savage, Food Poisoning, p. 61.
61. See G. S. Buchanan, in discussion of F. A. Bainbridge, 'The Aetiology and Epidemiology of Paratyphoid Fever and "Food-poisoning"', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 4.2 (1910-11), 63; Savage, Food Poisoning, p. 61.
62. See Dewberry, Food Poisoning, pp. 9-18, for an account of these discoveries.
63. Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1907, XXV, p. xiv; ibid., PP, 1908, XXX, p. 9.
64. Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1907, XXV, p. xiv; ibid., PP, 1908, XXX, p. 9.
65. Hansard, The Parliamentary Debates, fourth series, vol. 179 (1907), cols. 1441-55. Imported and canned foods (meats in particular) had become a special concern following the Chicago meat packing scandal of 1905-06: Lancet, ii (1906), 1626, 1719, 1729, 1787.
66. Hansard, The Parliamentary Debates, fourth series, vol. 179 (1907), cols. 1441-55. Imported and canned foods (meats in particular) had become a special concern following the Chicago meat packing scandal of 1905-06: Lancet, ii (1906), 1626, 1719, 1729, 1787.
67. 'Sir William Savage', British Medical Journal, i (1961), 1113.
68. W. G. Savage, 'Report on Bacterial Studies of Milk from Healthy Cows and Diseased Cows', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1908, XXX, Appendix B no 4, pp. 227-74; idem, 'Report on the Distribution of Organisms of the Gaertner Group in the Animal Intestine', ibid., Appendix B no 5, pp. 375-400.
69. W. G. Savage, 'Report on Bacterial Studies of Milk from Healthy Cows and Diseased Cows', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1908, XXX, Appendix B no 4, pp. 227-74; idem, 'Report on the Distribution of Organisms of the Gaertner Group in the Animal Intestine', ibid., Appendix B no 5, pp. 375-400.
70. See, for example, W. G. Savage, 'Report upon the Gaertner Group of Bacilli in Prepared Meat and Allied Foods', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1910, XXXIX, Appendix B no 3, pp. 492-519.
71. W. G. Savage, 'Further Report on the Presence of Gaertner Group Organisms in Animal Intestines', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1909, XXVIII, p. 479.
72. R. A. O'Brien, 'Guinea Pigs as Chronic Carriers of an Organism Belonging to the Food Poisoning Group', Journal of Hygiene, 10 (1910), 231-6.
73. E. R. Jones, 'Food Poisoning: - Its Epidemiology and Bacteriology', Journal of State Medicine, 45 (1937), 405.
74. Introduction to W. G. Savage, 'On Bacterial Food Poisoning and Food Infections', Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, New Series, no. 77 (1913), ii.
75. W. G. Savage, 'Administrative Measures for the Protection of the Food Supply', Journal of the Royal Institute of Public Health, 27 (1909), 682.
76. Food and the Public Health (London, 1919), p. 123.
77. Ibid., pp. 43, 56.
78. J. T. Hodgson, 'The Importation of Foreign Cattle', The Veterinarian, 22 (1849), 7.
79. W. A. Letham, 'Slaughterhouse Practice at Home and Abroad: A Comparison Between the Systems of Different Countries, the Methods of Meat Inspection and the Practice of Humane Killing', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, 58 (1937-38), 564.
80. See R. B. Haines, 'Observations on the Bacterial Flora of Some Slaughterhouses', Journal of Hygiene, 33 (1933), 165-74.
81. Major Q. Gurney, 'Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture from a Farmer's Standpoint', Journal of State Medicine, 42 (1934), 435-7.
82. Letham, 'Slaughterhouse Practice', p. 563.
83. F. Peckham, 'An Outbreak of Pork Pie Poisoning at Derby', Journal of Hygiene, 22 (1923-24), 69-76.
84. Ballard, '"Diarrhoea"', p. 33.
85. Savage and Bruce White, 'Food Poisoning', p. 105.
86. Editorial, 'The Salmonella Group and Food Poisoning Outbreaks', Public Health, 40 (1926-27), 9.
87. R. E. O. Williams, Microbiology for the Public Health: The Evolution of the Public Health Laboratory Service 1939-1980 (London, 1985), pp. 1-3. While some municipal public health laboratories did exist, university, hospital and independents were much more common.
88. W. G. Savage, 'Foreword' to Peckham, 'An Outbreak of Pork Pie Poisoning', p. 69; W. L. Burgess, 'An Outbreak of Food Poisoning Caused by the Bacillus Aertrycke', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 18.1-2 (1924-25), 61.
89. W. G. Savage, 'Foreword' to Peckham, 'An Outbreak of Pork Pie Poisoning', p. 69; W. L. Burgess, 'An Outbreak of Food Poisoning Caused by the Bacillus Aertrycke', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 18.1-2 (1924-25), 61.
90. W. G. Savage, 'Foreword' to Peckham, 'An Outbreak of Pork Pie Poisoning', p. 69; W. L. Burgess, 'An Outbreak of Food Poisoning Caused by the Bacillus Aertrycke', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 18.1-2 (1924-25), 61.
91. W. Angus, 'Notes on an Outbreak of Food Poisoning', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, 37 (1916), 15.
92. J. McPhail, 'Administrative Measures for the Protection of the Food Supply Produced in this Country', Journal of the Royal Institute of Public Health, 17 (1909), 673.
93. Savage, 'Administrative Measures', pp. 681-2.
94. C. Porter, 'Cleanliness in Food Handling: Impressions of American Methods', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLV (1924-25), 289.
95. Savage, Food and the Public Health, p. 56.
96. C. Porter, 'The Public and Food Hygiene' Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLVI (1924-25), 427. For the wider history of hygiene see M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (London, 1966); N. Elias, The Civilising Process (Oxford, 1978-82); G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness. Changing Attitudes in France from the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1988); A. Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant. Odour and the French Social Imagination (Leamington Spa, 1986); S. Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (Oxford, 1995); N. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs. Men, Women, and the Microbe in American life (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
97. C. Porter, 'The Public and Food Hygiene' Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLVI (1924-25), 427. For the wider history of hygiene see M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (London, 1966); N. Elias, The Civilising Process (Oxford, 1978-82); G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness. Changing Attitudes in France from the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1988); A. Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant. Odour and the French Social Imagination (Leamington Spa, 1986); S. Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (Oxford, 1995); N. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs. Men, Women, and the Microbe in American life (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
98. C. Porter, 'The Public and Food Hygiene' Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLVI (1924-25), 427. For the wider history of hygiene see M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (London, 1966); N. Elias, The Civilising Process (Oxford, 1978-82); G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness. Changing Attitudes in France from the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1988); A. Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant. Odour and the French Social Imagination (Leamington Spa, 1986); S. Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (Oxford, 1995); N. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs. Men, Women, and the Microbe in American life (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
99. C. Porter, 'The Public and Food Hygiene' Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLVI (1924-25), 427. For the wider history of hygiene see M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (London, 1966); N. Elias, The Civilising Process (Oxford, 1978-82); G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness. Changing Attitudes in France from the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1988); A. Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant. Odour and the French Social Imagination (Leamington Spa, 1986); S. Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (Oxford, 1995); N. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs. Men, Women, and the Microbe in American life (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
100. C. Porter, 'The Public and Food Hygiene' Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLVI (1924-25), 427. For the wider history of hygiene see M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (London, 1966); N. Elias, The Civilising Process (Oxford, 1978-82); G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness. Changing Attitudes in France from the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1988); A. Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant. Odour and the French Social Imagination (Leamington Spa, 1986); S. Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (Oxford, 1995); N. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs. Men, Women, and the Microbe in American life (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
101. C. Porter, 'The Public and Food Hygiene' Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLVI (1924-25), 427. For the wider history of hygiene see M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (London, 1966); N. Elias, The Civilising Process (Oxford, 1978-82); G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness. Changing Attitudes in France from the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1988); A. Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant. Odour and the French Social Imagination (Leamington Spa, 1986); S. Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (Oxford, 1995); N. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs. Men, Women, and the Microbe in American life (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
102. C. Porter, 'The Public and Food Hygiene' Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLVI (1924-25), 427. For the wider history of hygiene see M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (London, 1966); N. Elias, The Civilising Process (Oxford, 1978-82); G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness. Changing Attitudes in France from the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1988); A. Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant. Odour and the French Social Imagination (Leamington Spa, 1986); S. Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (Oxford, 1995); N. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs. Men, Women, and the Microbe in American life (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
103. W. St C. McClure, 'The Importance of Cleanliness in the Preparation and Distribution of Food', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLIV (1923-24), 315. See also S. E. Jones, 'Food Hygiene: with Abstracts from an Inspector's Diary', ibid., XLV (1924-25), 23-5; Councillor C. Bennett, 'Street Trading from the Public Health Point of View', Journal of State Medicine, 40 (1932), 543-8.
104. W. St C. McClure, 'The Importance of Cleanliness in the Preparation and Distribution of Food', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLIV (1923-24), 315. See also S. E. Jones, 'Food Hygiene: with Abstracts from an Inspector's Diary', ibid., XLV (1924-25), 23-5; Councillor C. Bennett, 'Street Trading from the Public Health Point of View', Journal of State Medicine, 40 (1932), 543-8.
105. W. St C. McClure, 'The Importance of Cleanliness in the Preparation and Distribution of Food', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, XLIV (1923-24), 315. See also S. E. Jones, 'Food Hygiene: with Abstracts from an Inspector's Diary', ibid., XLV (1924-25), 23-5; Councillor C. Bennett, 'Street Trading from the Public Health Point of View', Journal of State Medicine, 40 (1932), 543-8.
106. G. S. Elliston, in discussion following V. T. Thierens, 'The Control of Food and its Preparation', Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute, 57 (1936-37), 579.
107. Jones, 'Food Hygiene', p. 24; Porter, 'Cleanliness in Food Handling', p. 280; C. E. Goddard, 'Accidental Contamination of Food', British Medical Journal, ii (1925), 563-4.
108. Jones, 'Food Hygiene', p. 24; Porter, 'Cleanliness in Food Handling', p. 280; C. E. Goddard, 'Accidental Contamination of Food', British Medical Journal, ii (1925), 563-4.
109. Jones, 'Food Hygiene', p. 24; Porter, 'Cleanliness in Food Handling', p. 280; C. E. Goddard, 'Accidental Contamination of Food', British Medical Journal, ii (1925), 563-4.
110. Elliston, note 72 above, p. 579.
111. Ibid.
112. 'Sanitary Superstition', Lancet, i (1910), 398.
113. Captain A. H. Hayes, 'Enteric Fever Carriers', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, 34 (1913), 113.
114. Ibid.
115. Ibid., p. 120.
116. F. G. Whitbread, 'Faecal Organism Carriers', Journal of State Medicine, 34 (1926), 734. The paper quality referred to may have been that in military rather than civilian use: the context is not fully clear. It seems likely, however, that similar inexpensive toilet papers were used by both civilians and the military. The differences in quality and effectiveness of various types of toilet paper, their modes of use, and social implications remain to be explored. Whitbread's concerns recall Victoria Radlett on her father's financial crises: 'When the loo paper gets thicker and the writing-paper thinner it's always a bad sign, at home': N. Mitford, Love in a Cold Climate (London, 1949), p. 197.
117. F. G. Whitbread, 'Faecal Organism Carriers', Journal of State Medicine, 34 (1926), 734. The paper quality referred to may have been that in military rather than civilian use: the context is not fully clear. It seems likely, however, that similar inexpensive toilet papers were used by both civilians and the military. The differences in quality and effectiveness of various types of toilet paper, their modes of use, and social implications remain to be explored. Whitbread's concerns recall Victoria Radlett on her father's financial crises: 'When the loo paper gets thicker and the writing-paper thinner it's always a bad sign, at home': N. Mitford, Love in a Cold Climate (London, 1949), p. 197.
118. Ministry of Health, 'Precautions Against the Spread of Alimentary Infections', Circular no. 2198, 25 November 1940, cited in Ministry of Health Annual Report, year ended 31 March 1946, 29.
119. Ministry of Health, 'Precautions Against the Spread of Alimentary Infections', Circular no. 2198, 25 November 1940, cited in Ministry of Health Annual Report, year ended 31 March 1946, 29.
120. N. Habib et al., 'Now Wash Your Hands!!', The Chariot, 62 (1997), 10.
121. W. G. Savage and P. Bruce White, 'An Investigation of the Salmonella Group with Special Reference to Food Poisoning', Medical Research Council, Special Report Series, no. 91 (1925); idem, 'Food Poisoning'.
122. W. G. Savage and P. Bruce White, 'An Investigation of the Salmonella Group with Special Reference to Food Poisoning', Medical Research Council, Special Report Series, no. 91 (1925); idem, 'Food Poisoning'.
123. See, for example, Editorial, 'Rat Week, 1926', Public Health, 40 (1926-27), 35-6; idem, 'Hornsey Clean Food Exhibition', ibid., 39 (1925-26), 202-2.
124. See, for example, Editorial, 'Rat Week, 1926', Public Health, 40 (1926-27), 35-6; idem, 'Hornsey Clean Food Exhibition', ibid., 39 (1925-26), 202-2.
125. S. H. Warren and W. M. Scott, 'A New Serological Type of Salmonella', Journal of Hygiene, 29 (1929-30), 415-17; W. M. Scott, 'Food Poisoning Due to Eggs', British Medical Journal, ii (1930), 56-8.
126. S. H. Warren and W. M. Scott, 'A New Serological Type of Salmonella', Journal of Hygiene, 29 (1929-30), 415-17; W. M. Scott, 'Food Poisoning Due to Eggs', British Medical Journal, ii (1930), 56-8.
127. Salmonella Subcommittee of the Nomenclature Committee of the International Society for Microbiology, 'The Genus salmonella Lignieres, 1900', Journal of Hygiene, 34 (1934), 333-50; 'Discussion on Salmonella Infections', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 33.1 (1939-40), 370.
128. Salmonella Subcommittee of the Nomenclature Committee of the International Society for Microbiology, 'The Genus salmonella Lignieres, 1900', Journal of Hygiene, 34 (1934), 333-50; 'Discussion on Salmonella Infections', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 33.1 (1939-40), 370.
129. Savage and Bruce White, 'Food Poisoning', pp. 55-109. The number of more extensive incidents reported to the Ministry of Health averaged between 3 and 6 a year between the wars.
130. Food and Drugs Act, 1938: 1 & 2 Geo VI c. 56, General and Public Acts and Measures, 1937-38, pp. 673-762. See also D. Thomas, 'Food and Drugs Act, 1938', Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute, 59 (1938-39), 582-91; C. E. Sanderson, 'The Supervision of Food Supplies', ibid., 61 (1940-41), 75-80.
131. Food and Drugs Act, 1938: 1 & 2 Geo VI c. 56, General and Public Acts and Measures, 1937-38, pp. 673-762. See also D. Thomas, 'Food and Drugs Act, 1938', Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute, 59 (1938-39), 582-91; C. E. Sanderson, 'The Supervision of Food Supplies', ibid., 61 (1940-41), 75-80.
132. Food and Drugs Act, 1938: 1 & 2 Geo VI c. 56, General and Public Acts and Measures, 1937-38, pp. 673-762. See also D. Thomas, 'Food and Drugs Act, 1938', Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute, 59 (1938-39), 582-91; C. E. Sanderson, 'The Supervision of Food Supplies', ibid., 61 (1940-41), 75-80.
133. Williams, Microbiology for the Public Health, pp. 6-7, 9.
134. F. Fenner, 'Infectious Diseases and Social Change', Medical Journal of Australia, 2 (1971), 1044; W. G. Savage, 'Problems of Salmonella Food Poisoning', British Medical Journal, ii (1956), 317-23; W. H. Parry, 'The Epidemiology of 'Clostridium Welchii' Food Poisoning', Public Health, 81 (1966-67), 22-30; J. H. Macoy, 'Trends in Salmonella Food Poisoning in England and Wales, 1941-72', Journal of Hygiene, 74 (1975), 271-5; Williams, Microbiology for the Public Health, pp. 21-2, 62.
135. F. Fenner, 'Infectious Diseases and Social Change', Medical Journal of Australia, 2 (1971), 1044; W. G. Savage, 'Problems of Salmonella Food Poisoning', British Medical Journal, ii (1956), 317-23; W. H. Parry, 'The Epidemiology of 'Clostridium Welchii' Food Poisoning', Public Health, 81 (1966-67), 22-30; J. H. Macoy, 'Trends in Salmonella Food Poisoning in England and Wales, 1941-72', Journal of Hygiene, 74 (1975), 271-5; Williams, Microbiology for the Public Health, pp. 21-2, 62.
136. F. Fenner, 'Infectious Diseases and Social Change', Medical Journal of Australia, 2 (1971), 1044; W. G. Savage, 'Problems of Salmonella Food Poisoning', British Medical Journal, ii (1956), 317-23; W. H. Parry, 'The Epidemiology of 'Clostridium Welchii' Food Poisoning', Public Health, 81 (1966-67), 22-30; J. H. Macoy, 'Trends in Salmonella Food Poisoning in England and Wales, 1941-72', Journal of Hygiene, 74 (1975), 271-5; Williams, Microbiology for the Public Health, pp. 21-2, 62.
137. F. Fenner, 'Infectious Diseases and Social Change', Medical Journal of Australia, 2 (1971), 1044; W. G. Savage, 'Problems of Salmonella Food Poisoning', British Medical Journal, ii (1956), 317-23; W. H. Parry, 'The Epidemiology of 'Clostridium Welchii' Food Poisoning', Public Health, 81 (1966-67), 22-30; J. H. Macoy, 'Trends in Salmonella Food Poisoning in England and Wales, 1941-72', Journal of Hygiene, 74 (1975), 271-5; Williams, Microbiology for the Public Health, pp. 21-2, 62.
138. F. Fenner, 'Infectious Diseases and Social Change', Medical Journal of Australia, 2 (1971), 1044; W. G. Savage, 'Problems of Salmonella Food Poisoning', British Medical Journal, ii (1956), 317-23; W. H. Parry, 'The Epidemiology of 'Clostridium Welchii' Food Poisoning', Public Health, 81 (1966-67), 22-30; J. H. Macoy, 'Trends in Salmonella Food Poisoning in England and Wales, 1941-72', Journal of Hygiene, 74 (1975), 271-5; Williams, Microbiology for the Public Health, pp. 21-2, 62.
139. Savage, 'Problems of Salmonella Food Poisoning', pp. 317-23.
140. E. Ballard, 'A Summary Review of 14 Instances Reported Upon since 1879 . . . in which Disease of a Specific Character has been Communicated or Spread . . .', Medical Officer's Annual Report, Local Government Board, PP, 1890-91, XXXLV, Appendix 21, p. 258.
141. Ballard, 'Acute Specific Disease', p. 752; W. Angus, 'Notes on an Outbreak of Food Poisoning', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, 37 (1916), 15.
142. Ballard, 'Acute Specific Disease', p. 752; W. Angus, 'Notes on an Outbreak of Food Poisoning', Journal of the Sanitary Institute, 37 (1916), 15.
143. Savage, 'Problems of Salmonella Food Poisoning', p. 317.
144. Editorial, 'Food Poisoning', Public Health, 81 (1966-67), 49.
145. The figures are taken from Savage, 'Problems of Salmonella Food Poisoning', p. 317.
146. 'Food Poisoning', note 95 above.