Red or expert membership in the Chinese Academy of Sciences

Problems of Post-Communism

Volumn 46, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 42-55

  Cao, Cong ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033164018     PISSN: 10758216     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10758216.1999.11655844     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Susan L. Shirk, Competitive Comrades: Career Incentives and Student Strategies in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), p. 11.
2. Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), p. 6.
3. For a detailed history of CAS membership, see Cong Cao, "The Changing Dynamic Between Science and Politics: The Evolution of the Highest Academic Honor in China, 1949-1998," Isis 90, no, 2 (June 1999).
4. While National Academy of Sciences members pay dues, CAS members receive 200 yuan a month from China's State Council. Regional governments may add further stipends or benefits.
5. Yanjie Bian, "Chinese Occupational Prestige: A Comparative Analysis," International Sociology II, no. 2 (June 1996): 161-86; Nan Lin and Wen Xie, "Occupational Prestige in Urban China," American Journal of Sociology 93, no. 4 (January 1988): 793-832; and Zhongliang Zhang, "People and Science: Public Attitudes in China Toward Science and Technology," Science and Public Policy 18, no. 5 (October 1991): 311-17.
6. Yanjie Bian, "Chinese Occupational Prestige: A Comparative Analysis," International Sociology II, no. 2 (June 1996): 161-86; Nan Lin and Wen Xie, "Occupational Prestige in Urban China," American Journal of Sociology 93, no. 4 (January 1988): 793-832; and Zhongliang Zhang, "People and Science: Public Attitudes in China Toward Science and Technology," Science and Public Policy 18, no. 5 (October 1991): 311-17.
7. Yanjie Bian, "Chinese Occupational Prestige: A Comparative Analysis," International Sociology II, no. 2 (June 1996): 161-86; Nan Lin and Wen Xie, "Occupational Prestige in Urban China," American Journal of Sociology 93, no. 4 (January 1988): 793-832; and Zhongliang Zhang, "People and Science: Public Attitudes in China Toward Science and Technology," Science and Public Policy 18, no. 5 (October 1991): 311-17.
8. See, for example, Philip M. Boffey, The Brain Bank of America: An Inquiry into the Politics of Science (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975); Maurice Crosland, Science Under Control: The French Academy of Sciences, 1795-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1977).
9. See, for example, Philip M. Boffey, The Brain Bank of America: An Inquiry into the Politics of Science (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975); Maurice Crosland, Science Under Control: The French Academy of Sciences, 1795-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1977).
10. See, for example, Philip M. Boffey, The Brain Bank of America: An Inquiry into the Politics of Science (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975); Maurice Crosland, Science Under Control: The French Academy of Sciences, 1795-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1977).
11. Biographical information on CAS members was drawn from the following sources: Keyuan yinghua lu [The Elite in Chinese Science], vols. 1-2 (Beijing: Kexue puji chubanshe, 1985 and 1988); 1991 Nian Zhongguo kexue yuan xuebu weiyuan [Academic Department Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1991] (Zhejiang: Zhejiang kexuejishu chubanshe, 1993); Kexue 46, nos. 5-6 (September-November 1994); ibid., 47, nos. 1-3 (January-May 1995); Zhongguo kexue bao (overseas ed.) (February 26, 1996), 6; Lu Jiaxi, ed., Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji [Biographies of Contemporary Chinese Scientists], vols. 1-6 (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1991-94); Zhongguo kexueyuan yuanshi zishu [Autobiographical Notes of Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1996). These sources are reliable because of the participation of the CAS members themselves. Despite the incompleteness of some entries, the data set as a whole is the most comprehensive. In addition, sixty-five CAS members were interviewed in China between October 1995 and February 1996.
12. Biographical information on CAS members was drawn from the following sources: Keyuan yinghua lu [The Elite in Chinese Science], vols. 1-2 (Beijing: Kexue puji chubanshe, 1985 and 1988); 1991 Nian Zhongguo kexue yuan xuebu weiyuan [Academic Department Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1991] (Zhejiang: Zhejiang kexuejishu chubanshe, 1993); Kexue 46, nos. 5-6 (September-November 1994); ibid., 47, nos. 1-3 (January-May 1995); Zhongguo kexue bao (overseas ed.) (February 26, 1996), 6; Lu Jiaxi, ed., Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji [Biographies of Contemporary Chinese Scientists], vols. 1-6 (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1991-94); Zhongguo kexueyuan yuanshi zishu [Autobiographical Notes of Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1996). These sources are reliable because of the participation of the CAS members themselves. Despite the incompleteness of some entries, the data set as a whole is the most comprehensive. In addition, sixty-five CAS members were interviewed in China between October 1995 and February 1996.
13. Biographical information on CAS members was drawn from the following sources: Keyuan yinghua lu [The Elite in Chinese Science], vols. 1-2 (Beijing: Kexue puji chubanshe, 1985 and 1988); 1991 Nian Zhongguo kexue yuan xuebu weiyuan [Academic Department Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1991] (Zhejiang: Zhejiang kexuejishu chubanshe, 1993); Kexue 46, nos. 5-6 (September-November 1994); ibid., 47, nos. 1-3 (January-May 1995); Zhongguo kexue bao (overseas ed.) (February 26, 1996), 6; Lu Jiaxi, ed., Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji [Biographies of Contemporary Chinese Scientists], vols. 1-6 (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1991-94); Zhongguo kexueyuan yuanshi zishu [Autobiographical Notes of Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1996). These sources are reliable because of the participation of the CAS members themselves. Despite the incompleteness of some entries, the data set as a whole is the most comprehensive. In addition, sixty-five CAS members were interviewed in China between October 1995 and February 1996.
14. Biographical information on CAS members was drawn from the following sources: Keyuan yinghua lu [The Elite in Chinese Science], vols. 1-2 (Beijing: Kexue puji chubanshe, 1985 and 1988); 1991 Nian Zhongguo kexue yuan xuebu weiyuan [Academic Department Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1991] (Zhejiang: Zhejiang kexuejishu chubanshe, 1993); Kexue 46, nos. 5-6 (September-November 1994); ibid., 47, nos. 1-3 (January-May 1995); Zhongguo kexue bao (overseas ed.) (February 26, 1996), 6; Lu Jiaxi, ed., Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji [Biographies of Contemporary Chinese Scientists], vols. 1-6 (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1991-94); Zhongguo kexueyuan yuanshi zishu [Autobiographical Notes of Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1996). These sources are reliable because of the participation of the CAS members themselves. Despite the incompleteness of some entries, the data set as a whole is the most comprehensive. In addition, sixty-five CAS members were interviewed in China between October 1995 and February 1996.
15. Biographical information on CAS members was drawn from the following sources: Keyuan yinghua lu [The Elite in Chinese Science], vols. 1-2 (Beijing: Kexue puji chubanshe, 1985 and 1988); 1991 Nian Zhongguo kexue yuan xuebu weiyuan [Academic Department Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1991] (Zhejiang: Zhejiang kexuejishu chubanshe, 1993); Kexue 46, nos. 5-6 (September-November 1994); ibid., 47, nos. 1-3 (January-May 1995); Zhongguo kexue bao (overseas ed.) (February 26, 1996), 6; Lu Jiaxi, ed., Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji [Biographies of Contemporary Chinese Scientists], vols. 1-6 (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1991-94); Zhongguo kexueyuan yuanshi zishu [Autobiographical Notes of Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1996). These sources are reliable because of the participation of the CAS members themselves. Despite the incompleteness of some entries, the data set as a whole is the most comprehensive. In addition, sixty-five CAS members were interviewed in China between October 1995 and February 1996.
16. Biographical information on CAS members was drawn from the following sources: Keyuan yinghua lu [The Elite in Chinese Science], vols. 1-2 (Beijing: Kexue puji chubanshe, 1985 and 1988); 1991 Nian Zhongguo kexue yuan xuebu weiyuan [Academic Department Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1991] (Zhejiang: Zhejiang kexuejishu chubanshe, 1993); Kexue 46, nos. 5-6 (September-November 1994); ibid., 47, nos. 1-3 (January-May 1995); Zhongguo kexue bao (overseas ed.) (February 26, 1996), 6; Lu Jiaxi, ed., Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji [Biographies of Contemporary Chinese Scientists], vols. 1-6 (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1991-94); Zhongguo kexueyuan yuanshi zishu [Autobiographical Notes of Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1996). These sources are reliable because of the participation of the CAS members themselves. Despite the incompleteness of some entries, the data set as a whole is the most comprehensive. In addition, sixty-five CAS members were interviewed in China between October 1995 and February 1996.
17. Biographical information on CAS members was drawn from the following sources: Keyuan yinghua lu [The Elite in Chinese Science], vols. 1-2 (Beijing: Kexue puji chubanshe, 1985 and 1988); 1991 Nian Zhongguo kexue yuan xuebu weiyuan [Academic Department Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1991] (Zhejiang: Zhejiang kexuejishu chubanshe, 1993); Kexue 46, nos. 5-6 (September-November 1994); ibid., 47, nos. 1-3 (January-May 1995); Zhongguo kexue bao (overseas ed.) (February 26, 1996), 6; Lu Jiaxi, ed., Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji [Biographies of Contemporary Chinese Scientists], vols. 1-6 (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1991-94); Zhongguo kexueyuan yuanshi zishu [Autobiographical Notes of Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1996). These sources are reliable because of the participation of the CAS members themselves. Despite the incompleteness of some entries, the data set as a whole is the most comprehensive. In addition, sixty-five CAS members were interviewed in China between October 1995 and February 1996.
18. John Israel, "Continuities and Discontinuities in the Ideology of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution," in Ideology and Politics in Contemporary China, ed. Chalmers Johnson (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973), p. 7.
19. Suzanne Ogden, China's Unresolved Issues: Politics, Development, and Culture, 2d ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1992), p. 293.
20. Laurence Schneider, "Learning from Russia: Lysenkoism and the Fate of Genetics in China, 1950-1960," in Science and Technology in Post-Mao China, ed. Denis Fred Simon and Merle Goldman (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 48.
21. Selected Readings from the Works of Mao Zedong (1957; repr., Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1967), pp. 350-87.
22. Mao Zedong, "Sixty Points on Working Methods: A Draft Resolution," in Mao Papers: Anthology and Bibliography, ed. Jerome Ch'en (1958; repr., New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 57-76.
23. Nie Rongzhen, Inside the Red Star: The Memoirs of Marshal Nie Rongzhen (Beijing: New World Press, 1988), p. 720; Wu Heng, Kejizhanxian wushi nian [Fifty Years in the Front of Science and Technology] (Beijing: Kexue jishu wenxian chubanshe, 1994), pp. 181-86.
24. Nie Rongzhen, Inside the Red Star: The Memoirs of Marshal Nie Rongzhen (Beijing: New World Press, 1988), p. 720; Wu Heng, Kejizhanxian wushi nian [Fifty Years in the Front of Science and Technology] (Beijing: Kexue jishu wenxian chubanshe, 1994), pp. 181-86.
25. Yao Shuping, Luo Wei, Li Peishan, and Zhang Wei, "Zhongguo kexueyuan fazhan shi" [A Developmental History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences], in Zhongguo kexueyuan [The Chinese Academy of Sciences], vol. 1, ed. Qian Linzhao and Gu Yu (Beijing: Dangdai chubanshe, 1994), pp. 102-3.
26. Nathan Sivin, "Introductory Note," Science in Context 3, no. 2 (September 1989): 443.
27. Deng Xiaoping, "Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the National Conference on Science," in Deng Xiaoping Speeches and Writings, 2d expanded ed. (1978; repr. New York: Pergamon Press, 1987), p. 46.
28. Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China, 2d ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), pp. 171-72; Sivin, "Introductory Note," p. 443.
29. Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China, 2d ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), pp. 171-72; Sivin, "Introductory Note," p. 443.
30. Ogden, China's Unresolved Issues, p. 293.
31. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: Free Press, 1977), p. 129; Richard P. Suttmeier, Science and Revolution: Science Policy and Societal Change in China (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1974), pp. 36, 39; Li Zhenzhen, "Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu de choubei he jianli" [The Preparation and Establishment of the Academic Departments of the Chinese Academy of Sciences], Ziran bianzhengfa tongxun 14, no. 4 (August 1992): 40-50, on p. 43; Wu Heng, Keji zhanxian, p. 148; Yao Shuping, "Chinese Intellectuals and Science: A History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)," Science in Context 3, no. 2 (September 1989): 453; "Guanyu zengbu Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu weiyuan de tongzhi" [A Circular on the Enlargement of CAS Academic Department Members], in 1979 nian Zhongguo kexueyuan nianbao [1979 Yearbook of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Beijing: Zhongguo kexueyuan, 1982), p. 210.
32. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: Free Press, 1977), p. 129; Richard P. Suttmeier, Science and Revolution: Science Policy and Societal Change in China (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1974), pp. 36, 39; Li Zhenzhen, "Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu de choubei he jianli" [The Preparation and Establishment of the Academic Departments of the Chinese Academy of Sciences], Ziran bianzhengfa tongxun 14, no. 4 (August 1992): 40-50, on p. 43; Wu Heng, Keji zhanxian, p. 148; Yao Shuping, "Chinese Intellectuals and Science: A History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)," Science in Context 3, no. 2 (September 1989): 453; "Guanyu zengbu Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu weiyuan de tongzhi" [A Circular on the Enlargement of CAS Academic Department Members], in 1979 nian Zhongguo kexueyuan nianbao [1979 Yearbook of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Beijing: Zhongguo kexueyuan, 1982), p. 210.
33. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: Free Press, 1977), p. 129; Richard P. Suttmeier, Science and Revolution: Science Policy and Societal Change in China (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1974), pp. 36, 39; Li Zhenzhen, "Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu de choubei he jianli" [The Preparation and Establishment of the Academic Departments of the Chinese Academy of Sciences], Ziran bianzhengfa tongxun 14, no. 4 (August 1992): 40-50, on p. 43; Wu Heng, Keji zhanxian, p. 148; Yao Shuping, "Chinese Intellectuals and Science: A History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)," Science in Context 3, no. 2 (September 1989): 453; "Guanyu zengbu Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu weiyuan de tongzhi" [A Circular on the Enlargement of CAS Academic Department Members], in 1979 nian Zhongguo kexueyuan nianbao [1979 Yearbook of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Beijing: Zhongguo kexueyuan, 1982), p. 210.
34. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: Free Press, 1977), p. 129; Richard P. Suttmeier, Science and Revolution: Science Policy and Societal Change in China (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1974), pp. 36, 39; Li Zhenzhen, "Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu de choubei he jianli" [The Preparation and Establishment of the Academic Departments of the Chinese Academy of Sciences], Ziran bianzhengfa tongxun 14, no. 4 (August 1992): 40-50, on p. 43; Wu Heng, Keji zhanxian, p. 148; Yao Shuping, "Chinese Intellectuals and Science: A History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)," Science in Context 3, no. 2 (September 1989): 453; "Guanyu zengbu Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu weiyuan de tongzhi" [A Circular on the Enlargement of CAS Academic Department Members], in 1979 nian Zhongguo kexueyuan nianbao [1979 Yearbook of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Beijing: Zhongguo kexueyuan, 1982), p. 210.
35. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: Free Press, 1977), p. 129; Richard P. Suttmeier, Science and Revolution: Science Policy and Societal Change in China (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1974), pp. 36, 39; Li Zhenzhen, "Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu de choubei he jianli" [The Preparation and Establishment of the Academic Departments of the Chinese Academy of Sciences], Ziran bianzhengfa tongxun 14, no. 4 (August 1992): 40-50, on p. 43; Wu Heng, Keji zhanxian, p. 148; Yao Shuping, "Chinese Intellectuals and Science: A History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)," Science in Context 3, no. 2 (September 1989): 453; "Guanyu zengbu Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu weiyuan de tongzhi" [A Circular on the Enlargement of CAS Academic Department Members], in 1979 nian Zhongguo kexueyuan nianbao [1979 Yearbook of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Beijing: Zhongguo kexueyuan, 1982), p. 210.
36. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: Free Press, 1977), p. 129; Richard P. Suttmeier, Science and Revolution: Science Policy and Societal Change in China (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1974), pp. 36, 39; Li Zhenzhen, "Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu de choubei he jianli" [The Preparation and Establishment of the Academic Departments of the Chinese Academy of Sciences], Ziran bianzhengfa tongxun 14, no. 4 (August 1992): 40-50, on p. 43; Wu Heng, Keji zhanxian, p. 148; Yao Shuping, "Chinese Intellectuals and Science: A History of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)," Science in Context 3, no. 2 (September 1989): 453; "Guanyu zengbu Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu weiyuan de tongzhi" [A Circular on the Enlargement of CAS Academic Department Members], in 1979 nian Zhongguo kexueyuan nianbao [1979 Yearbook of the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (Beijing: Zhongguo kexueyuan, 1982), p. 210.
37. Ogden, China's Unresolved Issues, pp. 292-93.
38. Ibid., p. 293.
39. Schurmann, Ideology and Organization, p. 51.
40. Mu Fu-sheng, The Wilting of the Hundred Flowers: The Chinese Intelligentsia Under Mao (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1963), pp. 221-22.
41. Ogden, China's Unresolved Issues, pp. 292-93.
42. Nie Rongzhen, Inside the Red Star, p. 720.
43. Zhou Enlai, "On the Question of Intellectuals," in Communist China, 1955-1959: Policy Documents with Analysis, ed. Robert R. Bowie and John K. Fairbank (1956; repr., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), p. 138.
44. Cheng Li, "The Rise of Technocracy: Elite Transformation and Ideological Change in Post-Mao China" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1992), p. 184.
45. See, for example, Meisner, Mao's China, pp. 167-203; Merle Goldman, Sowing the Seeds of Democracy in China: Political Reform in the Deng Xiaoping Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 256-360.
46. See, for example, Meisner, Mao's China, pp. 167-203; Merle Goldman, Sowing the Seeds of Democracy in China: Political Reform in the Deng Xiaoping Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 256-360.
47. Chu-yuan Cheng, Scientific and Engineering Manpower in Communist China, 1949-63 (Washington: National Science Foundation, 1965), pp. 159-60.
48. Schurmann, Ideology and Organization, pp. 178-80; Derek J. Waller, The Government and Politics of the People 's Republic of China (New York: New York University Press, 1981), pp. 86-87.
49. Schurmann, Ideology and Organization, pp. 178-80; Derek J. Waller, The Government and Politics of the People 's Republic of China (New York: New York University Press, 1981), pp. 86-87.
50. In fact, on the termination of its first session in 1949, the CPPCC ceased to play a major role, with the takeover of the newly elected Central People's Government Council. See Waller, Government and Politics, p. 87.
51. Tong Zhan, "The United Front Work System and the Nonparty Elite," in Decision-Making in Deng's China: Perspectives from Insiders, ed. Carol Lee Hamrin and Suisheng Zhao (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995), p. 71.
52. The democratic parties here referred to are the China Democratic League, the September Third Study Society, the China Association for Promoting Democracy, the Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party, the China National Construction Association, the Guomindang Revolutionary Committee, the China Public Interest Party, and the Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League. The first two are almost entirely dominated by high-ranking intellectuals, the next two have a higher percentage of intellectuals, while the remainder represent other elements in China. The democratic parties are powerless organizations that generally support the CCP. See James D. Seymour, China's Satellite Parties (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1987).
53. Waller, Government and Politics, pp. 97-98.
54. Tong Zhan, "United Front Work System," pp. 71-72.
55. Ibid., p. 72.
56. Waller, Government and Politics, p. 108.
57. Seymour, China's Satellite Parties, p. 31.
58. Author interview with a CAS member in mineralology, Beijing, 1996.
59. Cheng, Scientific and Engineering Manpower, pp. 161-62.
60. Nan Lin and Yanjie Bian, "Getting Ahead in Urban China," American Journal of Sociology 97, no. 3 (November 1991): 668.
61. B. Michael Frolic, Mao's People: Sixteen Portraits of Life in Revolutionary China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), p. 75.
62. Hsi-sheng Ch'i, Politics of Disillusionment: The Chinese Communist Party Under Deng Xiaoping, 1978-1989 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), pp. 123-24.
63. Ibid., p. 125; Jacques Guillermaz, The Chinese Communist Party in Power, 1949-1976 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1976), p. 131.
64. Ibid., p. 125; Jacques Guillermaz, The Chinese Communist Party in Power, 1949-1976 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1976), p. 131.
65. The CCP enforces its control over Chinese society by placing its members throughout every institution, including the scientific community. See Andrew J. Nathan, China's Crisis: Dilemmas of Reform and Prospects for Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), p. 6.
66. Schurmann, Ideology and Organization, pp. 134-35.
67. James R. Townsend, "Intra-Party Conflict in China: Disintegration in an Established One-Party System," in Authoritarian Politics in Modern Society, ed. Samuel P. Huntington and Clement H. Moore (New York: Basic Books, 1970), p. 303.
68. Stanley Rosen, "The Chinese Communist Party and Chinese Society: Popular Attitudes Toward Party Membership and the Party's Image," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 24 (1991): 58, note to Table 3.
69. Richard P. Suttmeier, "Riding the Tiger: The Political Life of China's Scientists," in Citizens and Groups in Contemporary China, ed. Victor C. Falkenheim (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1987), p. 146.
70. Li Zhenzhen, "Zhongguo kexueyuan xuebu," p. 46;
71. Yao et al., "Zhongguo kexueyuan fazhan shi," p. 69.
72. Lu Jiaxi, Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji, vol. 1, p. 706.
73. Zhou Enlai, "On the Questions of Intellectuals," pp. 138-39.
74. Xu Liangying and Fan Dainian, Science and Socialist Construction in China, trans. C. S. Hsu (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1982), p. 194.
75. Cheng, Scientific and Engineering Manpower, p. 164.
76. Renmin ribao (June 25 and August 19, 1958); Cheng, Scientific and Engineering Manpower, p. 163.
77. Renmin ribao (June 25 and August 19, 1958); Cheng, Scientific and Engineering Manpower, p. 163.
78. Renmin ribao (June 12, 1958).
79. Cheng, Scientific and Engineering Manpower, p. 164.
80. Jing Lin, The Opening of the Chinese Mind: Democratic Changes in China Since 1978 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), pp. 14-15.
81. Chen Hanqi, "Yisheng qingfen, yisheng zuiqiu" [A Life of Hard Work and Pursuits], in Women de fubei (ziran kexuejia juan) [Our Fathers (Natural Scientists)], ed. Shao Hua and Xue Qiliang (Shijiazhuang: Hebei shaonian ertong chubanshe, 1993), pp. 189-98.
82. Tu Duobing, "Nuli yisheng wu xiedai" [Working Hard for an Entire Life Without Sluggishness], in Women de fubei, pp. 272-83.
83. Ch'i, Politics of Disillusionment, p. 131.
84. Meisner, Deng Xiaoping Era, p. 135.
85. H. Lyman Miller, Science and Dissent in Post-Mao China: The Politics of Knowledge (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), pp. 42-46.
86. For a recent account, see New York Times (July 2, 1996): A1.
87. Miller, Science and Dissent in Post-Mao China, p. 110; Tony Saich, China's Science Policy in the '80s (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989), pp. 86-87.
88. Miller, Science and Dissent in Post-Mao China, p. 110; Tony Saich, China's Science Policy in the '80s (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989), pp. 86-87.
89. Author interview with a CAS member in chemical engineering, Beijing, 1995.
90. Ch'i, Politics of Disillusionment, pp. 138-39.
91. Meisner, Deng Xiaoping Era, p. 129.
92. Author interview with a deputy director of Joint Office of the CAS Academic Departments, Beijing, 1996.
93. Author interview with a retired CAS cadre, Beijing, 1996.
94. See Cong Cao, "The Chinese Academy of Sciences: The Election of Scientists into the Elite Group," Minerva 36, no. 4 (winter 1998): 345-46.
95. Author interviews with CAS members in mechanics and meteorology, Beijing, 1996.
96. Author interviews with CAS members in chemical engineering, Beijing, 1995, and in mechanics, Dalian, 1996.
97. Suttmeier, "Riding the Tiger," p. 153.
98. Walder's description of the Party organization in the factory is applicable to a research institute or a university department. See his Communist Neo-Traditionalism, pp. 88-89.
99. Thomas B. Gold, "Autonomy Versus Authoritarianism," in The Broken Mirror: China After Tiananmen, ed. George Hicks (Chicago: St. James Press, 1990), p. 198.
100. Author interview with a CAS member in mechanics, Beijing, 1996.
101. Suttmeier, "Riding the Tiger," p. 146.
102. Fang Lizhi, "Gaige de sikao" [Reflection on Reform], in Weijigan xia de zeren: Fang Lizhi zixuanji zhi'er [Responsibility Under Crisis: Selected Speeches and Writings by Fang Lizhi] (1986; repr. Singapore: World Scientific, 1989), p. 48.
103. Orville Schell, Introduction to Bringing Down the Great Wall: Writings on Science, Culture, and Democracy in China, by Fang Lizhi; ed. and trans. James H. Williams (New York: Knopf, 1991), pp. xxv-xxvi.
104. The Fifteenth CCP Central Committee includes Song Jian, Zhou Guangzhao, and Lu Yongxiang as members, and Bai Chunli, Chen Jia'er (Beijing University president, physicist), and Zhao Zhongxian (CAS physicist) as alternate members.
105. Then why has Chinese science lagged far behind that of developed countries? In the analogous case of the Soviet Union, the lower performance was a matter of political interference, management, and organization, and the political and national cultures. See Thane Gustafson, "Why Doesn't Soviet Science Do Better Than It Does?" in The Social Context of Soviet Science, ed. Linda L. Lubrano and Susan Gross Solomon (Boulder: Westview Press, 1980), pp. 31-68.
106. The careers of China's scientists differ from those of other intellectuals, such as writers and social scientists, both frequent targets of the Party. See Merle Goldman, Literary Dissent in Communist China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), especially chaps. 5-10; Merle Goldman, China's Intellectuals: Advise and Dissent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Merle Goldman with Timothy Cheek and Carol Lee Hamrin, eds. China's Intellectuals and the State: In Search of a New Relationship (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), especially chaps. 1, 3, 4, 6-8. An obvious reason for this is that China's emergence as a major power in the world depends directly on its scientific and technical elite, although they have been mischievous from time to time.
107. The careers of China's scientists differ from those of other intellectuals, such as writers and social scientists, both frequent targets of the Party. See Merle Goldman, Literary Dissent in Communist China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), especially chaps. 5-10; Merle Goldman, China's Intellectuals: Advise and Dissent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Merle Goldman with Timothy Cheek and Carol Lee Hamrin, eds. China's Intellectuals and the State: In Search of a New Relationship (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), especially chaps. 1, 3, 4, 6-8. An obvious reason for this is that China's emergence as a major power in the world depends directly on its scientific and technical elite, although they have been mischievous from time to time.
108. The careers of China's scientists differ from those of other intellectuals, such as writers and social scientists, both frequent targets of the Party. See Merle Goldman, Literary Dissent in Communist China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), especially chaps. 5-10; Merle Goldman, China's Intellectuals: Advise and Dissent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Merle Goldman with Timothy Cheek and Carol Lee Hamrin, eds. China's Intellectuals and the State: In Search of a New Relationship (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), especially chaps. 1, 3, 4, 6-8. An obvious reason for this is that China's emergence as a major power in the world depends directly on its scientific and technical elite, although they have been mischievous from time to time.