Women's medicine, women's culture: Abortion and fortune-telling in early twentieth-century Germany and the Netherlands

Medical History

Volumn 43, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 376-392

  De Blécourt, Willem ^a   Usborne, Cornelie ^b  

^a Huizinga Instituut   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ROEHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; FEMALE; GERMANY; HEALTH SERVICE; HISTORY; HUMAN; INDUCED ABORTION; NETHERLANDS; TRADITIONAL MEDICINE;

ABORTION, INDUCED; CULTURE; FEMALE; GERMANY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL; NETHERLANDS; WOMEN'S HEALTH SERVICES;

EID: 0033156655     PISSN: 00257273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0025727300065418     Document Type: Review

References (84)

1. Cf. Byron J Good, Medicine, rationality, and experience: an anthropological perspective, Cambridge University Press, 1994; Cecil G Helman, Culture, health and illness: an introduction for health professionals, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.
2. Cf. Byron J Good, Medicine, rationality, and experience: an anthropological perspective, Cambridge University Press, 1994; Cecil G Helman, Culture, health and illness: an introduction for health professionals, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.
3. Barbara Duden, The woman beneath the skin: a doctor's patients in eighteenth-century Germany, Cambridge, Mass., and London, Harvard University Press, 1991.
4. We are aware of the criticism recently voiced by feminist historians on the crude separate sphere model and we grant that the boundaries between public/private, female/male sphere have in reality been blurred and contested; nevertheless we believe this dichotomy reflected an important aspect of patriarchal society, a kind of "western folk model". Cf. Henrietta L Moore, 'The difference within and the difference between', in Teresa del Valle (ed.), Gendered anthropology, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 193-204. See also, Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey (eds), Gender relations in German history: power, agency and experience from the sixteenth to the twentieth century, London, UCL Press, 1996, especially the introduction; Belinda Davis, 'Reconsidering Habermas, gender and the public sphere: the case of Wilhelmine Germany', in Geoff Eley (ed.), Society, culture, and the state in Germany, 1870-1930, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1997, pp. 397-426. As to empirical evidence of separate spheres, from the vast Anglo-Saxon literature on the subject, see, for example, Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family fortunes: men and women of the English middle class, 1780-1850, London, Hutchinson, 1987; for Germany, Ute Frevert, Bürgerinnen und Bürger: Geschlechterverhältnisse im 19. Jahrhundert, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988, and Karin Hausen, 'Family and role-division: the polarization of sexual stereotypes in the nineteenth century - an aspect of the dissociation of work and family life', in R J Evans and W R Lee (eds), The German family, London, Croom Helm, 1981, pp. 51-83.
5. We are aware of the criticism recently voiced by feminist historians on the crude separate sphere model and we grant that the boundaries between public/private, female/male sphere have in reality been blurred and contested; nevertheless we believe this dichotomy reflected an important aspect of patriarchal society, a kind of "western folk model". Cf. Henrietta L Moore, 'The difference within and the difference between', in Teresa del Valle (ed.), Gendered anthropology, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 193-204. See also, Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey (eds), Gender relations in German history: power, agency and experience from the sixteenth to the twentieth century, London, UCL Press, 1996, especially the introduction; Belinda Davis, 'Reconsidering Habermas, gender and the public sphere: the case of Wilhelmine Germany', in Geoff Eley (ed.), Society, culture, and the state in Germany, 1870-1930, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1997, pp. 397-426. As to empirical evidence of separate spheres, from the vast Anglo-Saxon literature on the subject, see, for example, Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family fortunes: men and women of the English middle class, 1780-1850, London, Hutchinson, 1987; for Germany, Ute Frevert, Bürgerinnen und Bürger: Geschlechterverhältnisse im 19. Jahrhundert, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988, and Karin Hausen, 'Family and role-division: the polarization of sexual stereotypes in the nineteenth century - an aspect of the dissociation of work and family life', in R J Evans and W R Lee (eds), The German family, London, Croom Helm, 1981, pp. 51-83.
6. We are aware of the criticism recently voiced by feminist historians on the crude separate sphere model and we grant that the boundaries between public/private, female/male sphere have in reality been blurred and contested; nevertheless we believe this dichotomy reflected an important aspect of patriarchal society, a kind of "western folk model". Cf. Henrietta L Moore, 'The difference within and the difference between', in Teresa del Valle (ed.), Gendered anthropology, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 193-204. See also, Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey (eds), Gender relations in German history: power, agency and experience from the sixteenth to the twentieth century, London, UCL Press, 1996, especially the introduction; Belinda Davis, 'Reconsidering Habermas, gender and the public sphere: the case of Wilhelmine Germany', in Geoff Eley (ed.), Society, culture, and the state in Germany, 1870-1930, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1997, pp. 397-426. As to empirical evidence of separate spheres, from the vast Anglo-Saxon literature on the subject, see, for example, Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family fortunes: men and women of the English middle class, 1780-1850, London, Hutchinson, 1987; for Germany, Ute Frevert, Bürgerinnen und Bürger: Geschlechterverhältnisse im 19. Jahrhundert, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988, and Karin Hausen, 'Family and role-division: the polarization of sexual stereotypes in the nineteenth century - an aspect of the dissociation of work and family life', in R J Evans and W R Lee (eds), The German family, London, Croom Helm, 1981, pp. 51-83.
7. We are aware of the criticism recently voiced by feminist historians on the crude separate sphere model and we grant that the boundaries between public/private, female/male sphere have in reality been blurred and contested; nevertheless we believe this dichotomy reflected an important aspect of patriarchal society, a kind of "western folk model". Cf. Henrietta L Moore, 'The difference within and the difference between', in Teresa del Valle (ed.), Gendered anthropology, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 193-204. See also, Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey (eds), Gender relations in German history: power, agency and experience from the sixteenth to the twentieth century, London, UCL Press, 1996, especially the introduction; Belinda Davis, 'Reconsidering Habermas, gender and the public sphere: the case of Wilhelmine Germany', in Geoff Eley (ed.), Society, culture, and the state in Germany, 1870-1930, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1997, pp. 397-426. As to empirical evidence of separate spheres, from the vast Anglo-Saxon literature on the subject, see, for example, Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family fortunes: men and women of the English middle class, 1780-1850, London, Hutchinson, 1987; for Germany, Ute Frevert, Bürgerinnen und Bürger: Geschlechterverhältnisse im 19. Jahrhundert, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988, and Karin Hausen, 'Family and role-division: the polarization of sexual stereotypes in the nineteenth century - an aspect of the dissociation of work and family life', in R J Evans and W R Lee (eds), The German family, London, Croom Helm, 1981, pp. 51-83.
8. We are aware of the criticism recently voiced by feminist historians on the crude separate sphere model and we grant that the boundaries between public/private, female/male sphere have in reality been blurred and contested; nevertheless we believe this dichotomy reflected an important aspect of patriarchal society, a kind of "western folk model". Cf. Henrietta L Moore, 'The difference within and the difference between', in Teresa del Valle (ed.), Gendered anthropology, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 193-204. See also, Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey (eds), Gender relations in German history: power, agency and experience from the sixteenth to the twentieth century, London, UCL Press, 1996, especially the introduction; Belinda Davis, 'Reconsidering Habermas, gender and the public sphere: the case of Wilhelmine Germany', in Geoff Eley (ed.), Society, culture, and the state in Germany, 1870-1930, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1997, pp. 397-426. As to empirical evidence of separate spheres, from the vast Anglo-Saxon literature on the subject, see, for example, Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family fortunes: men and women of the English middle class, 1780-1850, London, Hutchinson, 1987; for Germany, Ute Frevert, Bürgerinnen und Bürger: Geschlechterverhältnisse im 19. Jahrhundert, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988, and Karin Hausen, 'Family and role-division: the polarization of sexual stereotypes in the nineteenth century - an aspect of the dissociation of work and family life', in R J Evans and W R Lee (eds), The German family, London, Croom Helm, 1981, pp. 51-83.
9. We are aware of the criticism recently voiced by feminist historians on the crude separate sphere model and we grant that the boundaries between public/private, female/male sphere have in reality been blurred and contested; nevertheless we believe this dichotomy reflected an important aspect of patriarchal society, a kind of "western folk model". Cf. Henrietta L Moore, 'The difference within and the difference between', in Teresa del Valle (ed.), Gendered anthropology, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 193-204. See also, Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey (eds), Gender relations in German history: power, agency and experience from the sixteenth to the twentieth century, London, UCL Press, 1996, especially the introduction; Belinda Davis, 'Reconsidering Habermas, gender and the public sphere: the case of Wilhelmine Germany', in Geoff Eley (ed.), Society, culture, and the state in Germany, 1870-1930, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1997, pp. 397-426. As to empirical evidence of separate spheres, from the vast Anglo-Saxon literature on the subject, see, for example, Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family fortunes: men and women of the English middle class, 1780-1850, London, Hutchinson, 1987; for Germany, Ute Frevert, Bürgerinnen und Bürger: Geschlechterverhältnisse im 19. Jahrhundert, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988, and Karin Hausen, 'Family and role-division: the polarization of sexual stereotypes in the nineteenth century - an aspect of the dissociation of work and family life', in R J Evans and W R Lee (eds), The German family, London, Croom Helm, 1981, pp. 51-83.
10. Cf. Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual visions: images of gender in science and medicine between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries, New York, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989; Ornella Moscucci, The science of woman: gynaecology and gender in England, 1800-1929, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
11. Cf. Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual visions: images of gender in science and medicine between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries, New York, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989; Ornella Moscucci, The science of woman: gynaecology and gender in England, 1800-1929, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
12. In this instance we are not concerned with biological differences. Cf. Beate A. Schücking 'Weiße Flecken in der Landschaft: Frauenforschung in der Medizin', in Elisabeth Mixa, et al. (eds), in Körper-Geschlecht-Geschichte. Historische und aktuelle Debatten in der Medizin, Innsbruck and Vienna, Studien Verlag, 1996, pp. 229-43.
13. Emily Martin, The woman in the body: a cultural analysis of reproduction, Boston, Beacon Press, 1987, pp. 201-2.
14. For example, Margaret Stacey, The sociology of health and healing: a textbook, London and New York, Routledge, 1991, pp. 145-9.
15. The Times Higher Educational Supplement, 10 April 1998, p. 7.
16. For example, Regina Markell Morantz, 'Nineteenth century health reform and women: a program of self-help', in Günter B Risse, Ronald L Numbers and Judith Walzer Leavitt (eds), Medicine without doctors: home health care in American history, New York, Science History Publications, 1977, pp. 73-93.
17. Hilary Graham, 'Providers, negotiators, and mediators: women as the hidden carers', in Ellen Lewin and Virginia Olesen (eds), Women, health, and healing: towards a new perspective, New York and London, Tavistock, 1985, pp. 25-52.
18. Cf. Willem de Blécourt, 'Kaartlegsters, helderzienden en afdrijfsters. Stedelijke genezeressen in het begin van de twintigste eeuw', in Rineke van Daalen and Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra (eds), Gezond en Wel. Vrouwen en de zorg voor gezondheid in de twintigste eeuw; Amsterdam University Press, 1998, pp. 175-88, 278-80, which concerns both fortune-telling and abortion.
19. Naomi Rogers, 'Women and sectarian medicine', in Rima D Apple (ed.), Women, health and medicine in America: a historical handbook, New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1992, pp. 273-302, p. 274.
20. See, for example, Matthew Ramsey, Professional and popular medicine in France, 1770-1830: the social world of medical practice, Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press, 1988; Mary Lindemann, Health and healing in eighteenth-century Germany, Baltimore and London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
21. See, for example, Matthew Ramsey, Professional and popular medicine in France, 1770-1830: the social world of medical practice, Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press, 1988; Mary Lindemann, Health and healing in eighteenth-century Germany, Baltimore and London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
22. Cf. Françoise Loux, 'Folk medicine', in W F Bynum and Roy Porter (eds), Companion encyclopedia of the history of medicine, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 661-75; Elfriede Grabner, 'Volksmedizin', in Rolf W Brednich (ed.), Grundriss der Volkskunde. Einführung in die Forschungsfelder der europäischen Ethnologie, Berlin, Reimer, 1988, pp. 423-46. David J Hufford, 'Folk medicine in contemporary America', in James Kirkland, et al. (eds), Herbal and magical medicine: traditional healing today, Durham and London, Duke University Press, 1992, pp. 14-31.
23. Cf. Françoise Loux, 'Folk medicine', in W F Bynum and Roy Porter (eds), Companion encyclopedia of the history of medicine, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 661-75; Elfriede Grabner, 'Volksmedizin', in Rolf W Brednich (ed.), Grundriss der Volkskunde. Einführung in die Forschungsfelder der europäischen Ethnologie, Berlin, Reimer, 1988, pp. 423-46. David J Hufford, 'Folk medicine in contemporary America', in James Kirkland, et al. (eds), Herbal and magical medicine: traditional healing today, Durham and London, Duke University Press, 1992, pp. 14-31.
24. Cf. Françoise Loux, 'Folk medicine', in W F Bynum and Roy Porter (eds), Companion encyclopedia of the history of medicine, London and New York, Routledge, 1993, pp. 661-75; Elfriede Grabner, 'Volksmedizin', in Rolf W Brednich (ed.), Grundriss der Volkskunde. Einführung in die Forschungsfelder der europäischen Ethnologie, Berlin, Reimer, 1988, pp. 423-46. David J Hufford, 'Folk medicine in contemporary America', in James Kirkland, et al. (eds), Herbal and magical medicine: traditional healing today, Durham and London, Duke University Press, 1992, pp. 14-31.
25. Cornelia Regin, Selbsthilfe und Gesundheitspolitik. Die Naturheilbewegung im Kaiserreich (1889 bis 1914), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 1995. Cf. Martin Dinges, 'Medizinkritische Bewegungen zwischen "Lebenswelt" und "Wissenschaft", in Martin Dinges (ed.), Medizinkritische Bewegungen im Deutschen Reich (ca. 1870-ca. 1933), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 1996, P. 29.
26. Cornelia Regin, Selbsthilfe und Gesundheitspolitik. Die Naturheilbewegung im Kaiserreich (1889 bis 1914), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 1995. Cf. Martin Dinges, 'Medizinkritische Bewegungen zwischen "Lebenswelt" und "Wissenschaft", in Martin Dinges (ed.), Medizinkritische Bewegungen im Deutschen Reich (ca. 1870-ca. 1933), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 1996, P. 29.
27. Robert Jütte, Geschichte der Alternativen Medizin: von der Volksmedizin zu den unkonventionellen Therapien von heute, Munich, C H Beck, 1996.
28. Cf. the contribution of Robert Jütte in this issue.
29. For example, Christa Lange-Mehnert, '"Ein Sprung ins absolute Dunkle". Zum Selbstverständnis der ersten Ärztinnen: Marie Heim-Vögtlin und Franziska Tiburtius', in Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, Annette Kühn (eds), Frauenkörper, Medizin, Sexualität, Düsseldorf, Schwann, 1986, pp. 286-310; Eva Brinkschulte (ed.), Weibliche Ärzte. Die Durchsetzung des Berufsbildes in Deutschland, Berlin, Edition Hentrich, 1995; Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, 'Women and Medicine', in Bynum and Porter (eds), op. cit., note 14 above, pp. 888-914; Kristin Hoesch, Ärztinnen für Frauen. Kliniken in Berlin 1877-1914, Stuttgart and Weimar, Metzler, 1995. See also the 1994 symposium held at the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London, on 'Women in modern medicine', organized by Anne Hardy and Larry Conrad.
30. For example, Christa Lange-Mehnert, '"Ein Sprung ins absolute Dunkle". Zum Selbstverständnis der ersten Ärztinnen: Marie Heim-Vögtlin und Franziska Tiburtius', in Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, Annette Kühn (eds), Frauenkörper, Medizin, Sexualität, Düsseldorf, Schwann, 1986, pp. 286-310; Eva Brinkschulte (ed.), Weibliche Ärzte. Die Durchsetzung des Berufsbildes in Deutschland, Berlin, Edition Hentrich, 1995; Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, 'Women and Medicine', in Bynum and Porter (eds), op. cit., note 14 above, pp. 888-914; Kristin Hoesch, Ärztinnen für Frauen. Kliniken in Berlin 1877-1914, Stuttgart and Weimar, Metzler, 1995. See also the 1994 symposium held at the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London, on 'Women in modern medicine', organized by Anne Hardy and Larry Conrad.
31. For example, Christa Lange-Mehnert, '"Ein Sprung ins absolute Dunkle". Zum Selbstverständnis der ersten Ärztinnen: Marie Heim-Vögtlin und Franziska Tiburtius', in Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, Annette Kühn (eds), Frauenkörper, Medizin, Sexualität, Düsseldorf, Schwann, 1986, pp. 286-310; Eva Brinkschulte (ed.), Weibliche Ärzte. Die Durchsetzung des Berufsbildes in Deutschland, Berlin, Edition Hentrich, 1995; Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, 'Women and Medicine', in Bynum and Porter (eds), op. cit., note 14 above, pp. 888-914; Kristin Hoesch, Ärztinnen für Frauen. Kliniken in Berlin 1877-1914, Stuttgart and Weimar, Metzler, 1995. See also the 1994 symposium held at the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London, on 'Women in modern medicine', organized by Anne Hardy and Larry Conrad.
32. For example, Christa Lange-Mehnert, '"Ein Sprung ins absolute Dunkle". Zum Selbstverständnis der ersten Ärztinnen: Marie Heim-Vögtlin und Franziska Tiburtius', in Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, Annette Kühn (eds), Frauenkörper, Medizin, Sexualität, Düsseldorf, Schwann, 1986, pp. 286-310; Eva Brinkschulte (ed.), Weibliche Ärzte. Die Durchsetzung des Berufsbildes in Deutschland, Berlin, Edition Hentrich, 1995; Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, 'Women and Medicine', in Bynum and Porter (eds), op. cit., note 14 above, pp. 888-914; Kristin Hoesch, Ärztinnen für Frauen. Kliniken in Berlin 1877-1914, Stuttgart and Weimar, Metzler, 1995. See also the 1994 symposium held at the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London, on 'Women in modern medicine', organized by Anne Hardy and Larry Conrad.
33. For example, Christa Lange-Mehnert, '"Ein Sprung ins absolute Dunkle". Zum Selbstverständnis der ersten Ärztinnen: Marie Heim-Vögtlin und Franziska Tiburtius', in Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, Annette Kühn (eds), Frauenkörper, Medizin, Sexualität, Düsseldorf, Schwann, 1986, pp. 286-310; Eva Brinkschulte (ed.), Weibliche Ärzte. Die Durchsetzung des Berufsbildes in Deutschland, Berlin, Edition Hentrich, 1995; Johanna Geyer-Kordesch, 'Women and Medicine', in Bynum and Porter (eds), op. cit., note 14 above, pp. 888-914; Kristin Hoesch, Ärztinnen für Frauen. Kliniken in Berlin 1877-1914, Stuttgart and Weimar, Metzler, 1995. See also the 1994 symposium held at the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London, on 'Women in modern medicine', organized by Anne Hardy and Larry Conrad.
34. Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and science: women physicians in American medicine, New York and Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1985.
35. Susan E Cayleff, Wash and be healed: the water-cure movement and women's health, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1987;
36. idem, 'Gender, ideology, and the water-cure', in Norman Gevitz (ed.), Other healers: unorthodox medicine in America, Baltimore and London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988, pp. 82-98.
37. Jane B Donegan, "Hydropathic Highway to Health": women and water-cure in antebellum America, New York and Westport, Greenwood Press, 1986.
38. Marita Metz-Becker, Der Der verwaltete Körper. Die Medikalisierung schwangerer Frauen in den Gebärhäusern des frühen 19. Jahrhunderts, Frankfurt and New York, Campus, 1997.
39. Gunnar Stollberg, 'Health and illness in German workers' autobiographies from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries', in Soc. Hist. Med., 6: 261-76; Jens Lachmund, Gunnar Stollberg, Patientenwelten. Krankheit und Medizin vom späten 18. bis zum frühen 20. Jahrhundert im Spiegel von Autobiographien, Opladen, Leske & Budrich, 1995; see also Barbara Elkeles, 'Das Krankenhaus um die Wende vom 19. und 20. Jahrhundert aus der Sicht seiner Patienten', Historia Hospitalium, 1986-88, 17: 89-105.
40. Gunnar Stollberg, 'Health and illness in German workers' autobiographies from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries', in Soc. Hist. Med., 6: 261-76; Jens Lachmund, Gunnar Stollberg, Patientenwelten. Krankheit und Medizin vom späten 18. bis zum frühen 20. Jahrhundert im Spiegel von Autobiographien, Opladen, Leske & Budrich, 1995; see also Barbara Elkeles, 'Das Krankenhaus um die Wende vom 19. und 20. Jahrhundert aus der Sicht seiner Patienten', Historia Hospitalium, 1986-88, 17: 89-105.
41. Gunnar Stollberg, 'Health and illness in German workers' autobiographies from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries', in Soc. Hist. Med., 6: 261-76; Jens Lachmund, Gunnar Stollberg, Patientenwelten. Krankheit und Medizin vom späten 18. bis zum frühen 20. Jahrhundert im Spiegel von Autobiographien, Opladen, Leske & Budrich, 1995; see also Barbara Elkeles, 'Das Krankenhaus um die Wende vom 19. und 20. Jahrhundert aus der Sicht seiner Patienten', Historia Hospitalium, 1986-88, 17: 89-105.
42. Elizabeth Roberts, 'Oral history investigations of disease and its management by the Lancashire working class 1890-1939', in J V Pickstone (ed.), Health, disease and medicine in Lancashire 1750-1950: four papers on sources, problems and methods, Manchester, UMIST, 1980, pp. 33-51; Kate Fisher, 'The culture of abortion in inter-war South Wales', in Franz Eder, Lesley Hall, and Gert Hekma (eds), Sexual culture in Europe: 2: Themes in sexuality, Manchester University Press, 1999.
43. Elizabeth Roberts, 'Oral history investigations of disease and its management by the Lancashire working class 1890-1939', in J V Pickstone (ed.), Health, disease and medicine in Lancashire 1750-1950: four papers on sources, problems and methods, Manchester, UMIST, 1980, pp. 33-51; Kate Fisher, 'The culture of abortion in inter-war South Wales', in Franz Eder, Lesley Hall, and Gert Hekma (eds), Sexual culture in Europe: 2: Themes in sexuality, Manchester University Press, 1999.
44. For example, Barbara Brookes, Abortion in England, 1900-1967, London, Croom Helm, 1988; Leslie J Reagan, When abortion was a crime: women, medicine, and law in the United States, 1867-1973, Berkeley and London, University of California Press, 1997.
45. For example, Barbara Brookes, Abortion in England, 1900-1967, London, Croom Helm, 1988; Leslie J Reagan, When abortion was a crime: women, medicine, and law in the United States, 1867-1973, Berkeley and London, University of California Press, 1997.
46. For example, James Woycke, Birth control in Germany, 1871-1933, London and New York, Routledge, 1988, especially p. 75; cf. Cornelie Usborne, 'Abortion for sale! The competition between quacks and doctors in Weimar Germany', in Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, Hilary Marland and Hans de Waardt (eds), Illness and healing alternatives in western Europe, London and New York, Routledge, 1997, pp. 183-204, esp. 184-5.
47. For example, James Woycke, Birth control in Germany, 1871-1933, London and New York, Routledge, 1988, especially p. 75; cf. Cornelie Usborne, 'Abortion for sale! The competition between quacks and doctors in Weimar Germany', in Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, Hilary Marland and Hans de Waardt (eds), Illness and healing alternatives in western Europe, London and New York, Routledge, 1997, pp. 183-204, esp. 184-5.
48. For example, John Byers, 'Quackery - with special reference to female complaints', Br. med. J., 1911, i: 1239-42.
49. For an overview, see Willem de Blécourt, 'The witch, her victim, the unwitcher and the researcher. The continued existence of traditional witchcraft', in Willem de Blécourt, Ronald Hutton and Jean la Fontaine, Witchcraft and magic in Europe: the twentieth-century, London, Athlone Press, 1999, pp. 141-219.
50. Quoted in Caroline Currer and Meg Stacey, Concepts of health, illness, and disease: a comparative perspective, Leamington Spa and New York, Berg, 1986, p. 206.
51. Cf. Hilary Marland, 'The medicalization of motherhood: doctors and infant welfare in the Netherlands, 1901-1930', in Valerie Fildes, Lara Marks and Hilary Marland (eds), Women and children first: international maternal and infant welfare, 1870-1945, London and New York, Routledge, 1992, pp. 74-96. More general: Ute Frevert, 'The civilizing tendency of hygiene: working-class women under medical control in imperial Germany', in John C Fout (ed.), German women in the nineteenth century: a social history, New York, Holmes & Meier, 1984, pp. 321-44; idem, Krankheit als politisches Problem 1770-1880. Soziale Unterschichten in Preußen zwischen medizinischer Polizei und staatlicher Sozialversicherung, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984, pp.21, 28-36.
52. Cf. Hilary Marland, 'The medicalization of motherhood: doctors and infant welfare in the Netherlands, 1901-1930', in Valerie Fildes, Lara Marks and Hilary Marland (eds), Women and children first: international maternal and infant welfare, 1870-1945, London and New York, Routledge, 1992, pp. 74-96. More general: Ute Frevert, 'The civilizing tendency of hygiene: working-class women under medical control in imperial Germany', in John C Fout (ed.), German women in the nineteenth century: a social history, New York, Holmes & Meier, 1984, pp. 321-44; idem, Krankheit als politisches Problem 1770-1880. Soziale Unterschichten in Preußen zwischen medizinischer Polizei und staatlicher Sozialversicherung, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984, pp.21, 28-36.
53. Cf. Hilary Marland, 'The medicalization of motherhood: doctors and infant welfare in the Netherlands, 1901-1930', in Valerie Fildes, Lara Marks and Hilary Marland (eds), Women and children first: international maternal and infant welfare, 1870-1945, London and New York, Routledge, 1992, pp. 74-96. More general: Ute Frevert, 'The civilizing tendency of hygiene: working-class women under medical control in imperial Germany', in John C Fout (ed.), German women in the nineteenth century: a social history, New York, Holmes & Meier, 1984, pp. 321-44; idem, Krankheit als politisches Problem 1770-1880. Soziale Unterschichten in Preußen zwischen medizinischer Polizei und staatlicher Sozialversicherung, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984, pp.21, 28-36.
54. Willem de Blécourt, 'Dutch difference: prosecution of midwives in the late nineteenth-century Netherlands', in Margaret L Arnot and Cornelie Usborne (eds), Gender and crime in modern Europe, London, UCL Press, 1999, pp. 189-203.
55. Cf. Comelie Usborne, 'Wise women, wise men and abortion in the Weimar Republic: gender, class and medicine', in Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvie (eds), Gender relations in German history, London, UCL Press, 1996, pp.143-76, 146-52.
56. According to a 1927 decree by the German Supreme Court a termination on health grounds was permissible only in cases where a serious illness or potential death could not be averted by any other means and two doctors had to give their consent, see Cornelie Usborne, The politics of the body in Weimar Germany: women's reproductive rights and duties, London, Macmillan, 1992, pp.177, 214-15.
57. Leo Klauber, 'Die Abtreibung', in Ludwig Levy-Lenz, Sexualkatastrophen. Bilder aus dem modernen Geschlechts- und Eheleben, Leipzig, A H Payne,1926, p. 120.
58. Cf. Usborne, op. cit., note 32 above, p. 13; idem, op. cit., note 25 above, p. 191.
59. Cf. Usborne, op. cit., note 32 above, p. 13; idem, op. cit., note 25 above, p. 191.
60. Landesarchiv Berlin, Rep. 58, Acc. 4005, no. 2439.
61. Usborne, op. cit., note 25 above, p. 192.
62. Bundesarchiv Koblenz, Reichsjustizministerium, 6233, Bd. 2, Bl. 87-97.
63. For example, P Hüssy, 'Begutachtung und gerichtliche Beurteilung von ärztlichen Kunstfehlern auf dem geburtshilflichen-gynäkologischen Gebiete', Beilageheft zur Zeitschrift für Geburtshilfe und Gynäkologie, Stuttgart, 1935, vol. 3; cf. LAB, Rep 58, 2138, the case of Dr med. Joachim of Berlin, who was defended by an eminent medical expert and acquitted on appeal after he had been convicted of 24 criminal abortions, one of which ended in death.
64. Cf. Cornelie Usborne, 'Female voices in male courtrooms: abortion trials in Weimar Germany', in J Woodward, Robert Jütte (eds), Coping with sickness: perspectives on health care, past and present, vol. 3, Sheffield, European Association for the History of Medicine and Health Publications, 1999 (forthcoming).
65. See Usborne, op. cit., note 31 above, pp. 160-2, and idem, op. cit., note 25 above, p. 194.
66. See Usborne, op. cit., note 31 above, pp. 160-2, and idem, op. cit., note 25 above, p. 194.
67. See Willem de Blécourt, Het Amazonenleger. Irreguliere genezeressen in Nederland, ca. 1850-1930, Amsterdam University Press, 1999 (forthcoming), esp. chs 4 and 7.
68. The Dutch Medical Act of 1865 confirmed the practice of medicine without a licence as illegal.
69. Haagsche Courant, 4 December 1895; 6 July 1914; 2 July 1923.
70. Maandblad legen de kwakzalverij, September 1907, 27 (9).
71. Gerda Brautigam and Jan Liber, Het kwaad der waarzeggerij. Reportage van de zelfkant der samenleving, Rotterdam, Dagblad Voorwaarts, 1939, p. 45.
72. Haagsche Courant, 9 August 1915.
73. Municipal Archive of Amsterdam, library nrs. U 00510 and U 00507.
74. Quoted in the Maandblad tegen de kwakzalverij, March 1918, 38 (3).
75. Maandblad tegen de kwakzalverij, July 1936, 56 (7).
76. Municipal archive Den Haag, police archives, inv.nr. 2559, nr. 47.
77. Insurance in Germany was introduced on an ad hoc basis in the early 1840s and on a national scale in the early 1880s; cf. Reinhard Spree, 'Kurpfuscherei-Bekämpfung und ihre soziale Funktionen', in Alfons Labisch and Reinhard Spree (eds), Medizinische Deutungsmacht im sozialen Wandel des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts, Bonn, Psychiatrie-Verlag, 1989, pp. 103-22, 112, and Ute Frevert, 'Professional medicine and the working classes in imperial Germany', J. contemp. Hist., 1985, 20: 637-58. About attempts to have non-university trained healers working for insurance companies, see Marina Lienert, '"Naturheilkunde ist keine Wissenschaft!" Naturheilvereine, Ortskrankenkassen und Parteien in den Auseinandersetzungen um die Errichtung eines Lehrstuhls für Naturheilkunde an der Universität Leipzig (1894-1924)', in Dinges (ed.), op. cit., note 15 above, pp. 59-78. In the Netherlands national health insurance was introduced only during the German occupation in 1941 but there were local and confessional insurance schemes in operation before.
78. Insurance in Germany was introduced on an ad hoc basis in the early 1840s and on a national scale in the early 1880s; cf. Reinhard Spree, 'Kurpfuscherei-Bekämpfung und ihre soziale Funktionen', in Alfons Labisch and Reinhard Spree (eds), Medizinische Deutungsmacht im sozialen Wandel des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts, Bonn, Psychiatrie-Verlag, 1989, pp. 103-22, 112, and Ute Frevert, 'Professional medicine and the working classes in imperial Germany', J. contemp. Hist., 1985, 20: 637-58. About attempts to have non-university trained healers working for insurance companies, see Marina Lienert, '"Naturheilkunde ist keine Wissenschaft!" Naturheilvereine, Ortskrankenkassen und Parteien in den Auseinandersetzungen um die Errichtung eines Lehrstuhls für Naturheilkunde an der Universität Leipzig (1894-1924)', in Dinges (ed.), op. cit., note 15 above, pp. 59-78. In the Netherlands national health insurance was introduced only during the German occupation in 1941 but there were local and confessional insurance schemes in operation before.
79. Insurance in Germany was introduced on an ad hoc basis in the early 1840s and on a national scale in the early 1880s; cf. Reinhard Spree, 'Kurpfuscherei-Bekämpfung und ihre soziale Funktionen', in Alfons Labisch and Reinhard Spree (eds), Medizinische Deutungsmacht im sozialen Wandel des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts, Bonn, Psychiatrie-Verlag, 1989, pp. 103-22, 112, and Ute Frevert, 'Professional medicine and the working classes in imperial Germany', J. contemp. Hist., 1985, 20: 637-58. About attempts to have non-university trained healers working for insurance companies, see Marina Lienert, '"Naturheilkunde ist keine Wissenschaft!" Naturheilvereine, Ortskrankenkassen und Parteien in den Auseinandersetzungen um die Errichtung eines Lehrstuhls für Naturheilkunde an der Universität Leipzig (1894-1924)', in Dinges (ed.), op. cit., note 15 above, pp. 59-78. In the Netherlands national health insurance was introduced only during the German occupation in 1941 but there were local and confessional insurance schemes in operation before.
80. Cf. Barbara Harrison, Not only the 'dangerous trades': women's work and health in Britain, 1880-1914, London, Taylor & Francis, 1996.
81. The concept of "lay referral system" would be appropriate here, if it had been without connotations with patriarchal medical organisations, cf. Graham, op. cit., note 10 above, pp. 31-2.
82. For example, Ursula Sharma, Complementary medicine today: patients and practitioners, London and New York, Tavistock/Routledge, 1992, pp. 19-20.
83. For example, Matthew Ramsey in this issue.
84. Cf. Charles E Rosenberg, 'Introduction. Framing disease: illness, society, and history', in Charles E Rosenberg and Janet Golden (eds), Framing disease: studies in cultural history, New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1992, pp. xiii-xxvi.