Assistance and repression: Rural exodus, vagabondage and social crisis in France, 1880-1914

Journal of Social History

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 821-846

  Smith, Timothy B ^a  

^a Department of History ^*  (Canada)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033147797     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/32.4.821     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. Quoted in Dr. Armand Marie and Raymond Meunier, Les vagabonds (Paris, 1908), p. 246 and in Jean-Pierre Deloux, Vacher l'assassin: Un 'serial killer' français au XIXème siècle (Paris, 1995). The key texts for this story are by Alexandre Bérard, Vacher l'Eventreur ou la passion sadique (Paris, 1899) and Vacher l'Eventreur et les crimes sadiques (Paris, 1899).
2. Quoted in Dr. Armand Marie and Raymond Meunier, Les vagabonds (Paris, 1908), p. 246 and in Jean-Pierre Deloux, Vacher l'assassin: Un 'serial killer' français au XIXème siècle (Paris, 1995). The key texts for this story are by Alexandre Bérard, Vacher l'Eventreur ou la passion sadique (Paris, 1899) and Vacher l'Eventreur et les crimes sadiques (Paris, 1899).
3. Quoted in Dr. Armand Marie and Raymond Meunier, Les vagabonds (Paris, 1908), p. 246 and in Jean-Pierre Deloux, Vacher l'assassin: Un 'serial killer' français au XIXème siècle (Paris, 1995). The key texts for this story are by Alexandre Bérard, Vacher l'Eventreur ou la passion sadique (Paris, 1899) and Vacher l'Eventreur et les crimes sadiques (Paris, 1899).
4. Quoted in Dr. Armand Marie and Raymond Meunier, Les vagabonds (Paris, 1908), p. 246 and in Jean-Pierre Deloux, Vacher l'assassin: Un 'serial killer' français au XIXème siècle (Paris, 1995). The key texts for this story are by Alexandre Bérard, Vacher l'Eventreur ou la passion sadique (Paris, 1899) and Vacher l'Eventreur et les crimes sadiques (Paris, 1899).
5. Emile Fourquet, "Les vagabonds criminels," Revue des deux mondes 152 (15 March 1899): 399-437.
6. The 1976 film of Bertrand Tavernier, Le juge et l'assassin, starring Philippe Noiret as the judge and Michel Galabru as the murderer, was loosely based upon the Vacher affair. In 1995, a French journalist, Jean-Pierre Deloux, produced a short popular history (without adequate footnote documentation) of the topic (cited above) and recently Matt Matsuda devoted a chapter to him in his book, The Memory of the Modern (New York, 1996); otherwise, Vacher has received little attention from historians. It would seem that this story cries out for a micro-history.
7. The 1976 film of Bertrand Tavernier, Le juge et l'assassin, starring Philippe Noiret as the judge and Michel Galabru as the murderer, was loosely based upon the Vacher affair. In 1995, a French journalist, Jean-Pierre Deloux, produced a short popular history (without adequate footnote documentation) of the topic (cited above) and recently Matt Matsuda devoted a chapter to him in his book, The Memory of the Modern (New York, 1996); otherwise, Vacher has received little attention from historians. It would seem that this story cries out for a micro-history.
8. Quoted in Marie and Meunier, Les vagabonds, p. 218.
9. Quoted in Marie and Meunier, Les vagabonds, pp. 241-2.
10. On the persistence of begging and on the problem of vagabondage, see Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, 1976), pp. 62-66. Earlier periods have been covered by Olwen Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France, 1750-1789 (Oxford, 1974), ch. 8; Robert M. Schwartz, Policing the Poor of Eighteenth-Century France (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988); Thomas McStay Adams, Beggars and Bureaucrats: French Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment (New York, 1990); and Isser Woloch, The New Regime: Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789-1820s (New York, 1994).
11. On the persistence of begging and on the problem of vagabondage, see Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, 1976), pp. 62-66. Earlier periods have been covered by Olwen Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France, 1750-1789 (Oxford, 1974), ch. 8; Robert M. Schwartz, Policing the Poor of Eighteenth-Century France (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988); Thomas McStay Adams, Beggars and Bureaucrats: French Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment (New York, 1990); and Isser Woloch, The New Regime: Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789-1820s (New York, 1994).
12. On the persistence of begging and on the problem of vagabondage, see Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, 1976), pp. 62-66. Earlier periods have been covered by Olwen Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France, 1750-1789 (Oxford, 1974), ch. 8; Robert M. Schwartz, Policing the Poor of Eighteenth-Century France (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988); Thomas McStay Adams, Beggars and Bureaucrats: French Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment (New York, 1990); and Isser Woloch, The New Regime: Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789-1820s (New York, 1994).
13. On the persistence of begging and on the problem of vagabondage, see Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, 1976), pp. 62-66. Earlier periods have been covered by Olwen Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France, 1750-1789 (Oxford, 1974), ch. 8; Robert M. Schwartz, Policing the Poor of Eighteenth-Century France (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988); Thomas McStay Adams, Beggars and Bureaucrats: French Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment (New York, 1990); and Isser Woloch, The New Regime: Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789-1820s (New York, 1994).
14. On the persistence of begging and on the problem of vagabondage, see Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, 1976), pp. 62-66. Earlier periods have been covered by Olwen Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France, 1750-1789 (Oxford, 1974), ch. 8; Robert M. Schwartz, Policing the Poor of Eighteenth-Century France (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988); Thomas McStay Adams, Beggars and Bureaucrats: French Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment (New York, 1990); and Isser Woloch, The New Regime: Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789-1820s (New York, 1994).
15. Conseil supérieur de l'assistance publique (CSAP) 19 (1888), "Dépôts de mendicité. Rapport au Conseil supérieur de l'Assistance publique . . .," Charles Dupuy, p. 14.
16. Archives Nationales, Paris (AN) C 5622, No. 651, Chambre des Députés, Annèxe au procès-verbal de la séance du 25 janvier 1899, Jean Cruppi, "Proposition de loi relative aux moyens d'assistance et de coercion propres à prévenir ou à réprimer le vagabondage et la mendicité," no. 691, 25 janvier (Paris, 1899), p. 3.
17. "Si celui qui existe a le droit de dire à la société: 'Fais-moi vivre,' la société a également le droit de lui dire: 'Donne-moi ton travail.'" Quoted in Jules de Crisenoy, Questions d'assistance et d'hygiène publiques traités dans les conseils généraux, 13 vols., (Paris, 1885-1900) (hereafter de Crisenoy, vol. no.), vol. 8 (1894), pp. 156-7.
18. Further explored in my forthcoming article, "The Plight of the Able-Bodied Poor and the Unemployed in France, 1880-1914."
19. Gordon Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty: Two Centuries of the Crime Problem in France (New York, 1983), p. 158; Ministère de la Justice, Compte général de l'administration de la justice criminelle en France (Paris, 1882), pp. 142-3; Bulletin de la Société des prisons, 1893, p. 508.
20. Gordon Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty: Two Centuries of the Crime Problem in France (New York, 1983), p. 158; Ministère de la Justice, Compte général de l'administration de la justice criminelle en France (Paris, 1882), pp. 142-3; Bulletin de la Société des prisons, 1893, p. 508.
21. Gordon Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty: Two Centuries of the Crime Problem in France (New York, 1983), p. 158; Ministère de la Justice, Compte général de l'administration de la justice criminelle en France (Paris, 1882), pp. 142-3; Bulletin de la Société des prisons, 1893, p. 508.
22. de Crisenoy, vol. 6 (1892), pp. 158-9.
23. de Crisenoy, vol. 5 (1891), p. 167.
24. Pierre Masse, "Disette et mendicité en Poitou (XVIIIè-XIXè siècle)," L'Actualité de l'histoire 27 (1959): 9-10.
25. Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty, p. 154.
26. Robert A. Nye, Crime, Madness, and Politics in Modem France: The Medical Concept of National Decline (Princeton, 1984), pp. 171-226; Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty, p. 158.
27. Robert A. Nye, Crime, Madness, and Politics in Modem France: The Medical Concept of National Decline (Princeton, 1984), pp. 171-226; Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty, p. 158.
28. For example, see Le Petit parisien, October and November 1905, for several sensationalistic illustrations depicting marauding "apaches" and "bohémiens." Dominique Kalifa discusses the yellow journalism of the time (and, briefly, the Vacher affair) in L'Encre et le sang (Paris, 1995). My thanks to Jeremy Popkin for this reference.
29. For example, see Le Petit parisien, October and November 1905, for several sensationalistic illustrations depicting marauding "apaches" and "bohémiens." Dominique Kalifa discusses the yellow journalism of the time (and, briefly, the Vacher affair) in L'Encre et le sang (Paris, 1995). My thanks to Jeremy Popkin for this reference.
30. Guy de Maupassant, Le horla. Le vagabond, in Oeuvres complètes IX (Paris, 1969).
31. On the problem of vagrancy in Paris, see Othenin d'Haussonville, "La misère à Paris (II),̀ Revue des deux mondes 47 (1881): 611-51. On crime in general see Benjamin F. Martin, Crime and Justice under the Third Republic: The Shame of Marianne (Baton Rouge, 1990).
32. On the problem of vagrancy in Paris, see Othenin d'Haussonville, "La misère à Paris (II),̀ Revue des deux mondes 47 (1881): 611-51. On crime in general see Benjamin F. Martin, Crime and Justice under the Third Republic: The Shame of Marianne (Baton Rouge, 1990).
33. Pierre Sorlin, La société française, 1840-1914 (Paris, 1969), p. 53.
34. Leo A. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France: Its Rise and Decline, 1848-1914 (Albany, N.Y., 1974), p. 98.
35. Jules Méline, Le retour à la terre et la surproduction industrielle (Paris, 1905), p. 82.
36. Cited in AN C 5622, No. 651, Chambre des Députés, Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 25 janvier 1899, Jean Cruppi, "Proposition de loi relative aux moyens d'assistance et de coercition propres à prévenir ou à réprimer le vagabondage et la mendicité," p. 2.
37. "Les asiles de nuit de Paris," Bulletin de l'Office du travail 7 (July 1897): 454.
38. CSAP 73 (1899), "Les dépôts de mendicité," p. 10.
39. Joseph Arminjon, La Population du département du Rhône: Son evolution depuis le début du XIXè siècle (Lyon, 1940), p. 77.
40. Georges Duby, ed. Histoire de la France rurale, v. 3, De 1789 à 1914 (Paris, 1976), pp. 68, 204.
41. Duby, Histoire de la France rurale, p. 463.
42. Michel Huber, La population de la France pendant la guerre (New Haven, 1931), p. 59.
43. Emile Vandervelde, L'Exode rural et le retour aux champs (Paris, 1903), pp. 22, 121; Journal officiel 8 Jan. 1902, p. 99.
44. Emile Vandervelde, L'Exode rural et le retour aux champs (Paris, 1903), pp. 22, 121; Journal officiel 8 Jan. 1902, p. 99.
45. Paul Cère, Les populations dangereuses et les misères sociales (Paris, 1872), p. 137.
46. P. Hubert-Valléroux, La Charité avant et depuis 1789 dans les campagnes de France (Paris, 1890), p. 245.
47. Fernand Charoy, L'Assistance aux vieillards, infirmes et incurables en France de 1789 à 1905 (Paris, 1905), pp. 55-56. Adams, Bureaucrats and Beggars, and Schwartz, Policing the Poor in Eighteenth-Century France, are the two key sources on the topic.
48. Fernand Charoy, L'Assistance aux vieillards, infirmes et incurables en France de 1789 à 1905 (Paris, 1905), pp. 55-56. Adams, Bureaucrats and Beggars, and Schwartz, Policing the Poor in Eighteenth-Century France, are the two key sources on the topic.
49. Jules de Crisenoy, Les établissements hospitaliers dans les campagnes (Paris, 1886), p. 4.
50. John Weiss, "Origins of the French Welfare State: Poor Relief in the Third Republic, 1871-1914," French Historical Studies XIII (Spring 1983): 73; Timothy B. Smith, "Public Assistance and Labor Supply in Nineteenth-Century Lyon," Journal of Modern History 68 (March 1996): 1-30.
51. John Weiss, "Origins of the French Welfare State: Poor Relief in the Third Republic, 1871-1914," French Historical Studies XIII (Spring 1983): 73; Timothy B. Smith, "Public Assistance and Labor Supply in Nineteenth-Century Lyon," Journal of Modern History 68 (March 1996): 1-30.
52. Martha L. Hildreth, Doctors, Bureaucrats and Public Health in France, 1888-1902 (New York, 1987), p. 60.
53. Dr. Henri Henrot, Rapport sur l'assistance publique à Reims (Reims, 1883), pp. 8, 9.
54. Peter Stearns, Old Age in European Society: The Case of France (London, 1977), pp. 54-5.
55. Henri Napias, Budgets municipaux et budgets hospitaliers (Paris, 1896).
56. CSAP 37 (1892), "Projet de loi sur l'assistance aux vieillards," p. 8.
57. Archives de l'Assistance Publique, Paris (AAP), C-1300, Marie-Dominique Augey, "L'Aide sociale à Nice: Assistance et bienfaisance de 1860 à 1914," Mémoire de maîtrise, Université de Nice, 1969, p. 64.
58. Bibliothèque Nationale (BN) 8.R.14593, Dr. Lausiès, Société centrale havraise de secours, Histoire de l'assistance par le travail au Havre (Le Havre, 1897), p. 45.
59. William H. Sewell, Structure and Mobility: The Men and Women of Marseille, 1820-1870 (Cambridge, 1985), p. 215.
60. de Crisenoy, Les établissements hospitaliers, p. 6.
61. Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), p. 74. On the mixed populations of the depots, see J. Vallée, Les dépôts de mendicité: Leur utilisation comme moyen d'assistance (Paris, 1908). In order to provide impoverished elderly with shelter, communities often threw them into the depots, where they were forced to mingle with beggars, vagabonds and hardened criminals.
62. Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), p. 74. On the mixed populations of the depots, see J. Vallée, Les dépôts de mendicité: Leur utilisation comme moyen d'assistance (Paris, 1908). In order to provide impoverished elderly with shelter, communities often threw them into the depots, where they were forced to mingle with beggars, vagabonds and hardened criminals.
63. An 1892 enquiry by Paul Strauss, presented to the Senate, found that private establishments cared for at least 93,400 individuals, of which 40,000 were elderly and incurable. Of these 40,000, at least 33,000 were assisted by confessional charities; only 7,000 were assisted by lay ones. Usually, the minimum admission age was 60, Charoy, L'Assistance aux vieillards, p. 37.
64. Charles Le Roux, Le vagabondage et la mendicité àParis et dans le département de la Seine: Assistance et répression (Paris, 1907), pp. 5-6.
65. Othenin d'Haussonville, "Le combat contre le vice (I): La répression," Revue des deux mondes 84 (15 Dec. 1887): 815.
66. Nye, Crime, Madness, and Politics, p. 58.
67. Marcel Lecoq, L'Assistance par le travail en France (Paris, 1900), p. 35.
68. For example, Dr. Paul Brousse, "L'organisation des asiles à propos de l'affaire Vacher," Revue de psychiatrie (1899): 301-02.
69. Quoted in de Crisenoy, vol. 8 (1894), p. 155.
70. Typical was Albert Maréchaux, L'assistance publique. Sa suppression (Paris, 1893), p.
71. Othenin d'Haussonville discussed this phenomenon in "L'assistance par le travail: Faut-il faire la charité?," Revue des deux mondes 122 (1894): 40-71.
72. CSAP 19 (1888), p. 26.
73. Ministère du travail et de la prévoyance sociale, Statistique générale de la France, Statistique annuelle des institutions d'assistance. Année 1910. (Paris, 1912), p. 39. This theme is further explored in my forthcoming article, "The Plight of the Able-Bodied Poor."
74. Statistique générale de la France, Statistique annuelle des institutions d'assistance. Année 1910, p. 7. On Lyon, Smith, "Public Assistance and Labor Supply." On Nancy, Edouard Cormouls-Houlès, L'assistance par le travail (Paris, 1910), p. 422.
75. Statistique générale de la France, Statistique annuelle des institutions d'assistance. Année 1910, p. 7. On Lyon, Smith, "Public Assistance and Labor Supply." On Nancy, Edouard Cormouls-Houlès, L'assistance par le travail (Paris, 1910), p. 422.
76. Statistique générale de la France, Statistique annuelle des institutions d'assistance. Année 1910, p. 7. On Lyon, Smith, "Public Assistance and Labor Supply." On Nancy, Edouard Cormouls-Houlès, L'assistance par le travail (Paris, 1910), p. 422.
77. Quoted in Cormouls-Houlès, L'assistance par le travail, p. 745.
78. Susanna Barrows, Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven, 1981); Patricia E. Prestwich, Drink and the Politics of Social Reform: Antialcoholism in France since 1870 (Palo Alto, Calif., 1988).
79. Susanna Barrows, Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven, 1981); Patricia E. Prestwich, Drink and the Politics of Social Reform: Antialcoholism in France since 1870 (Palo Alto, Calif., 1988).
80. AAP C-368, Ministère de l'Intérieur, Enquête sur les bureaux de bienfaisance, by Paul Bucquet (Paris, 1874), p. Llx.
81. J. Lefort, Intempérance et misère (Paris, 1875).
82. See Timothy B. Smith, "The Ideology of Charity, the Image of the English Poor Law, and Debates over the Right to Assistance in France," The Historical Journal 40 (Dec. 1997): 997-1032.
83. For a glimpse of the vastness of the literature, see the bibliography in Dr. Armand Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds: Etude psychologique, sociologique et médico-légale (Lyon, 1906), and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c.1848-c. 1918 (Cambridge, 1989). See also Jean-Claude Beaune, Le vagabond et la machine: Essai sur l'automatisme ambulatoire, médecine, technique et société, 1880-1910 (Seyssel, 1983).
84. For a glimpse of the vastness of the literature, see the bibliography in Dr. Armand Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds: Etude psychologique, sociologique et médico-légale (Lyon, 1906), and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c.1848-c. 1918 (Cambridge, 1989). See also Jean-Claude Beaune, Le vagabond et la machine: Essai sur l'automatisme ambulatoire, médecine, technique et société, 1880-1910 (Seyssel, 1983).
85. For a glimpse of the vastness of the literature, see the bibliography in Dr. Armand Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds: Etude psychologique, sociologique et médico-légale (Lyon, 1906), and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c.1848-c. 1918 (Cambridge, 1989). See also Jean-Claude Beaune, Le vagabond et la machine: Essai sur l'automatisme ambulatoire, médecine, technique et société, 1880-1910 (Seyssel, 1983).
86. Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics, p. 173.
87. For example, Alexandre Bérard, "Le vagabondage en France," Archives de l'Anthropologie criminelle XIII (1898): 601-04.
88. Marie and Meunier, Les Vagabonds, pp. 32, 32.
89. For a critique of some of the more sensationalist literature, see Othenin d'Hausson-linebreak ville, "L'Enfance à Paris (V): La Mendicité, les asiles, les refuges," Revue des deux mondes 27 (15 June 1878): 891.
90. Louis Paulian, Paris qui mendie: Mal et remède (Paris, 1899), pp. 12, 247.
91. Georges Berry, La Mendicité (Paris, 1897), pp. 178, 200. His dramatic portraits can also be found in AN C 5622, No. 660, Chambre des Députés, Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 25 janvier 1899, Georges Berry, "Proposition de loi tendant à la suppression de la mendicité."
92. Georges Berry, La Mendicité (Paris, 1897), pp. 178, 200. His dramatic portraits can also be found in AN C 5622, No. 660, Chambre des Députés, Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 25 janvier 1899, Georges Berry, "Proposition de loi tendant à la suppression de la mendicité."
93. Othenin d'Haussonville, "L'Enfance à Paris (IV): Les vagabonds et les mendians," Revue des deux mondes 27 (1 June 1878): 613. Even the judge who presided in the Vacher case wrote on the topic in the same spirit, Fourquet, "Les vagabonds criminels." Another judge, L. Albanel, wrote "L'Enfance criminelle à Paris," Revue philanthropique IV (1898-99): 385-99 and 513-42. See also Dr. Victor Parant, "Vagabondage des mineurs," VIIe Congrès national de Toulouse du patronage des libérés (Toulouse, 1907).
94. Othenin d'Haussonville, "L'Enfance à Paris (IV): Les vagabonds et les mendians," Revue des deux mondes 27 (1 June 1878): 613. Even the judge who presided in the Vacher case wrote on the topic in the same spirit, Fourquet, "Les vagabonds criminels." Another judge, L. Albanel, wrote "L'Enfance criminelle à Paris," Revue philanthropique IV (1898-99): 385-99 and 513-42. See also Dr. Victor Parant, "Vagabondage des mineurs," VIIe Congrès national de Toulouse du patronage des libérés (Toulouse, 1907).
95. Othenin d'Haussonville, "L'Enfance à Paris (IV): Les vagabonds et les mendians," Revue des deux mondes 27 (1 June 1878): 613. Even the judge who presided in the Vacher case wrote on the topic in the same spirit, Fourquet, "Les vagabonds criminels." Another judge, L. Albanel, wrote "L'Enfance criminelle à Paris," Revue philanthropique IV (1898-99): 385-99 and 513-42. See also Dr. Victor Parant, "Vagabondage des mineurs," VIIe Congrès national de Toulouse du patronage des libérés (Toulouse, 1907).
96. Othenin d'Haussonville, "L'Enfance à Paris (IV): Les vagabonds et les mendians," Revue des deux mondes 27 (1 June 1878): 613. Even the judge who presided in the Vacher case wrote on the topic in the same spirit, Fourquet, "Les vagabonds criminels." Another judge, L. Albanel, wrote "L'Enfance criminelle à Paris," Revue philanthropique IV (1898-99): 385-99 and 513-42. See also Dr. Victor Parant, "Vagabondage des mineurs," VIIe Congrès national de Toulouse du patronage des libérés (Toulouse, 1907).
97. Marie and Meunier, Les vagabonds, p. 6.
98. AN C 7487, p. 31.
99. Quoted in Marie and Meunier, Les vagabonds, p. 78.
100. Théodore Homberg, Etudes sur le vagabondage (Paris, 1880), p. 4.
101. AAP B-3343, Cour d'Appel de Bordeaux. "Considérations sur les délits de vagabondage et de mendicité." Discours de Paul Pasteau, 16 octobre 1899 (Bordeaux, 1899), pp. 7, 8.
102. Louis Rivière, "Mendiants et vagabonds," Revue philanthropique 11 (1902): 33.
103. Marius Berge, "Hygiène et charité sociale," Revue philanthropique 11 (1902): 698-99.
104. See the bibliography in Pagnier, Du vagabondage.
105. Quoted in Woloch, The New Regime, p. 267.
106. AN C 5622, No. 660, Chambre des Députés, Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 25 janvier 1899, Georges Berry, "Proposition de loi tendant à la suppression de la mendicité," pp. 3, 75.
107. Rivière, "Oeuvres de la bienfaisance privée," p. 288.
108. Congrès international d'assistance publique et de bienfaisance privée, Administration et gestion des oeuvres d'assistance par le travail dans les départements, Rapport présenté par M. le pasteur Aeschimann (Melun, 1900), p. 14.
109. AAP B-284/18, Léon Lefébure, L'Organisation de la charité privée en France. Rapport décennal sur les travaux de l'Office central des oeuvres de bienfaisance depuis sa fondation (Paris, 1900), pp. 13, 34.
110. BN 8.R.17372, Maurice Jourdan, De l'intervention des pouvoirs publics en matière d'assistance par le travail (Paris, 1901), p. 120.
111. Jourdan, De l'intervention, p. 124.
112. Musée Social, Paris (CEDIAS), Office central lillois des Institutions sociales et charitables, Rapport et Compte-rendu. Octobre 1895 à decembre 1896 (Lille, 1897).
113. "L'Hospitalité du nuit en France," Revue philanthropique 5 (1899): 64-78.
114. For example, Louis Riviere, La répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité en Belgique et en Allemagne. Rapport à la Société des agriculteurs de France, 30 avril 1900 (Paris, 1900) and La réforme de la bienfaisance en Belgique (Paris, 1901); G. Batardy, "De la répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité en Belgique," Bulletin de la Société générale des prisons (1893): 768-69. See also Henri Gaillac, Les maisons de correction, 1830-1945 (Paris, 1971).
115. For example, Louis Riviere, La répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité en Belgique et en Allemagne. Rapport à la Société des agriculteurs de France, 30 avril 1900 (Paris, 1900) and La réforme de la bienfaisance en Belgique (Paris, 1901); G. Batardy, "De la répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité en Belgique," Bulletin de la Société générale des prisons (1893): 768-69. See also Henri Gaillac, Les maisons de correction, 1830-1945 (Paris, 1971).
116. For example, Louis Riviere, La répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité en Belgique et en Allemagne. Rapport à la Société des agriculteurs de France, 30 avril 1900 (Paris, 1900) and La réforme de la bienfaisance en Belgique (Paris, 1901); G. Batardy, "De la répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité en Belgique," Bulletin de la Société générale des prisons (1893): 768-69. See also Henri Gaillac, Les maisons de correction, 1830-1945 (Paris, 1971).
117. For example, Louis Riviere, La répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité en Belgique et en Allemagne. Rapport à la Société des agriculteurs de France, 30 avril 1900 (Paris, 1900) and La réforme de la bienfaisance en Belgique (Paris, 1901); G. Batardy, "De la répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité en Belgique," Bulletin de la Société générale des prisons (1893): 768-69. See also Henri Gaillac, Les maisons de correction, 1830-1945 (Paris, 1971).
118. Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds, pp. 6, 182; François Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: Une histoire de la délinquance de 1750 à nos jours (Paris, 1986), p. 262. A disappointing book. More useful is Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), pp. 99-100. On relegation, see Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty; Patricia O'Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1982), pp. 258-68; Michel Pierre, "La Transportation (1848-1938)," in Jean-Guy Petit, et. al., ed., Histoire des galères, bagnes et prisons (Toulouse, 1991).
119. Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds, pp. 6, 182; François Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: Une histoire de la délinquance de 1750 à nos jours (Paris, 1986), p. 262. A disappointing book. More useful is Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), pp. 99-100. On relegation, see Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty; Patricia O'Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1982), pp. 258-68; Michel Pierre, "La Transportation (1848-1938)," in Jean-Guy Petit, et. al., ed., Histoire des galères, bagnes et prisons (Toulouse, 1991).
120. Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds, pp. 6, 182; François Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: Une histoire de la délinquance de 1750 à nos jours (Paris, 1986), p. 262. A disappointing book. More useful is Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), pp. 99-100. On relegation, see Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty; Patricia O'Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1982), pp. 258-68; Michel Pierre, "La Transportation (1848-1938)," in Jean-Guy Petit, et. al., ed., Histoire des galères, bagnes et prisons (Toulouse, 1991).
121. Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds, pp. 6, 182; François Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: Une histoire de la délinquance de 1750 à nos jours (Paris, 1986), p. 262. A disappointing book. More useful is Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), pp. 99-100. On relegation, see Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty; Patricia O'Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1982), pp. 258-68; Michel Pierre, "La Transportation (1848-1938)," in Jean-Guy Petit, et. al., ed., Histoire des galères, bagnes et prisons (Toulouse, 1991).
122. Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds, pp. 6, 182; François Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: Une histoire de la délinquance de 1750 à nos jours (Paris, 1986), p. 262. A disappointing book. More useful is Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), pp. 99-100. On relegation, see Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty; Patricia O'Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1982), pp. 258-68; Michel Pierre, "La Transportation (1848-1938)," in Jean-Guy Petit, et. al., ed., Histoire des galères, bagnes et prisons (Toulouse, 1991).
123. Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds, pp. 6, 182; François Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: Une histoire de la délinquance de 1750 à nos jours (Paris, 1986), p. 262. A disappointing book. More useful is Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), pp. 99-100. On relegation, see Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty; Patricia O'Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1982), pp. 258-68; Michel Pierre, "La Transportation (1848-1938)," in Jean-Guy Petit, et. al., ed., Histoire des galères, bagnes et prisons (Toulouse, 1991).
124. Pagnier, Du vagabondage et des vagabonds, pp. 6, 182; François Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: Une histoire de la délinquance de 1750 à nos jours (Paris, 1986), p. 262. A disappointing book. More useful is Joseph Viple, La répression pénale de la mendicité (Paris, 1905), pp. 99-100. On relegation, see Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty; Patricia O'Brien, The Promise of Punishment: Prisons in Nineteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1982), pp. 258-68; Michel Pierre, "La Transportation (1848-1938)," in Jean-Guy Petit, et. al., ed., Histoire des galères, bagnes et prisons (Toulouse, 1991).
125. de Crisenoy, vol. 10 (1896), p. 115.
126. G. Drouineau, "Les enquêtes sur le vagabondage," Revue philanthropique (1897), p. 323.
127. de Crisenoy, vol. 9 (1895), pp. 140-41; "Les enquêtes sur le vagabondage," Revue philanthropique (1897): 321-36.
128. de Crisenoy, vol. 9 (1895), pp. 140-41; "Les enquêtes sur le vagabondage," Revue philanthropique (1897): 321-36.
129. Ibid., p. 326.
130. Ibid., p. 330; de Crisenoy, passim.
131. Ibid., p. 330; de Crisenoy, passim.
132. Bulletin du Ministère de l'Intérieur (1897): 67; Jourdan, De l'intervention, pp. 70-71.
133. Bulletin du Ministère de l'Intérieur (1897): 67; Jourdan, De l'intervention, pp. 70-71.
134. Quoted in Cormouls-Houlès, L'assistance par le travail, p. 629.
135. Cormouls-Houlès, L'assistance par le travail, p. 629.
136. This is a theme briefly mentioned in Christophe Guitton, "Le chômage entre question sociale et question pénale en France au tournant du siècle," in M. Mansfield, et. al., eds., Aux sources du chômage, 1880-1914 (Paris, 1994).
137. Louis Rivière, "Le Délit du mendicité," Revue philanthropique 4 (1898-99): 641-8.
138. For example, "Répression du vagabondage," Bulletin de la Société des agriculteurs de France (1 June 1898): 202-209.
139. Jourdan, De l'intervention, pp. 140-42.
140. CSAP 73 (1899), "Rapport sur les dépôts de mendicité . . . par M. Jean Cruppi."
141. Jean Cruppi, "Proposition de loi."
142. For an excellent discussion of the various bills, see Cormouls-Houlès, L'Assistance par le travail, pp. 629-46. Also useful is F. Dubief, La Question du vagabondage (Paris, 1911).
143. For an excellent discussion of the various bills, see Cormouls-Houlès, L'Assistance par le travail, pp. 629-46. Also useful is F. Dubief, La Question du vagabondage (Paris, 1911).
144. AN C 7487, No. 87, Chambre des Députés, Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 13 juin 1910, Rapports faits au nom de la commission relative à la répression du vagabondage et de la mendicité . . ., by Marc Réville (hereafter AN C 7487).
145. AN C 7487, p. 2.
146. Robert Doucet, "La répression des délits causés par la misère," Revue politique et parlementaire 73 (July 1900): 88-94.
147. Quoted in Cormouls-Houlès, L'assistance par le travail, p. 58.
148. AN C 7487, p. 20.
149. Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty, p. 161;
150. Allan Mitchell, The Divided Path: The German Influence on Social Reform in France after 1870 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991), pp. 282-83.
151. AN C 7775, Chambre des Députés, Commission chargée d'étudier les mesures relatives à la répression de la mendicité et du vagabondage.
152. Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty, p. 175.
153. Wright, Between the Guillotine and Liberty, pp. 178-79, 183.
154. Guitton, "Le chômage."