The civil war generation: Military service and mobility in Dubuque, Iowa, 1860-1870

Journal of Social History

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 790-820

  Johnson, Russell L ^a  

^a BILKENT UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033147596     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/32.4.791     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Iowa Religious Newsletter, July 1862, p.1; D.A. Mahony, The Prisoner of State (New York 1863), 246-247 (for "subservient army" comment); Herald, 6 February 1863 (for broader loss of "manliness") as well as Herald, 18 November, 23 and 28 December 1862, and 23 and 24 January 1863 for other Mahony comments; and Times, 1 June 1861. All newspapers are Dubuque dailies, unless otherwise noted.
2. Iowa Religious Newsletter, July 1862, p.1; D.A. Mahony, The Prisoner of State (New York 1863), 246-247 (for "subservient army" comment); Herald, 6 February 1863 (for broader loss of "manliness") as well as Herald, 18 November, 23 and 28 December 1862, and 23 and 24 January 1863 for other Mahony comments; and Times, 1 June 1861. All newspapers are Dubuque dailies, unless otherwise noted.
3. Iowa Religious Newsletter, July 1862, p.1; D.A. Mahony, The Prisoner of State (New York 1863), 246-247 (for "subservient army" comment); Herald, 6 February 1863 (for broader loss of "manliness") as well as Herald, 18 November, 23 and 28 December 1862, and 23 and 24 January 1863 for other Mahony comments; and Times, 1 June 1861. All newspapers are Dubuque dailies, unless otherwise noted.
4. Iowa Religious Newsletter, July 1862, p.1; D.A. Mahony, The Prisoner of State (New York 1863), 246-247 (for "subservient army" comment); Herald, 6 February 1863 (for broader loss of "manliness") as well as Herald, 18 November, 23 and 28 December 1862, and 23 and 24 January 1863 for other Mahony comments; and Times, 1 June 1861. All newspapers are Dubuque dailies, unless otherwise noted.
5. Iowa Religious Newsletter, July 1862, p.1; D.A. Mahony, The Prisoner of State (New York 1863), 246-247 (for "subservient army" comment); Herald, 6 February 1863 (for broader loss of "manliness") as well as Herald, 18 November, 23 and 28 December 1862, and 23 and 24 January 1863 for other Mahony comments; and Times, 1 June 1861. All newspapers are Dubuque dailies, unless otherwise noted.
6. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
7. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
8. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
9. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
10. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
11. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
12. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
13. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
14. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
15. Quotes from Semi-Weekly Times, 11 July 1865; Sherman quoted in Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - Iowa Commandery, War Sketches and Incidents (Des Moines, IA, 1893), 2: 63; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York, 1965), 123; and "The Draft, or, Conscription Reviewed by the People" in Frank Freidel (ed.), Union Pamphlets of the Civil War (Cambridge, MA, 1967) 2: 792. Nor are these mixed feelings unique to the Civil War era or even to the United States; see, for example, comments of George Richards Minot quoted in E. Wayne Carp, "The Problem of National Defense in the Early Republic" in Jack P. Greene (ed.), The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 14-50; Willard Waller, Veteran Comes Back (New York, 1944); Myra MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation (New York, 1984), esp. 207-328; Richard Severe and Lewis Milford, The Wages of War: When America's Soldiers Came Home - From Valley Forge to Vietnam (New York, 1989); plus Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York, 1994) for ancient Greek attitudes toward veterans; and Edith Abbott, "Crime and the War," Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (May 1918): 32-45 for some British and French ideas about World War I veterans.
16. Waller, Veteran Comes Back, 126; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 608; and Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995), 78.
17. Waller, Veteran Comes Back, 126; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 608; and Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995), 78.
18. Waller, Veteran Comes Back, 126; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 608; and Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995), 78.
19. For instance, in his path-breaking book on social mobility in Newburyport, Massachusetts in the years 1850-1880, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1964), Stephen Thernstrom makes no reference to military service or non-service. Commonly mobility studies evade the issue by skipping the 1860s; for example mobility in Boston has been analyzed from 1830-1970 - except for the years 1860-1880: Peter R. Knights, The Plain People of Boston, 1830-1860: A Study in City Growth (New York, 1971); and Stephen Thernstrom, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1973). Other important early analyses of mobility include Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion: Some Data and Speculations about Urban Population Mobility in Nineteenth-Century America" in Tamara Hareven (ed.), Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971), 17-47; and John Modell, "The Peopling of a Working-Class Ward: Reading, Pennsylvania, 1850," Journal of Social History 5 (1971): 71-95. See Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 220-239 for a survey of mobility studies and their results.
20. For instance, in his path-breaking book on social mobility in Newburyport, Massachusetts in the years 1850-1880, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1964), Stephen Thernstrom makes no reference to military service or non-service. Commonly mobility studies evade the issue by skipping the 1860s; for example mobility in Boston has been analyzed from 1830-1970 - except for the years 1860-1880: Peter R. Knights, The Plain People of Boston, 1830-1860: A Study in City Growth (New York, 1971); and Stephen Thernstrom, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1973). Other important early analyses of mobility include Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion: Some Data and Speculations about Urban Population Mobility in Nineteenth-Century America" in Tamara Hareven (ed.), Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971), 17-47; and John Modell, "The Peopling of a Working-Class Ward: Reading, Pennsylvania, 1850," Journal of Social History 5 (1971): 71-95. See Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 220-239 for a survey of mobility studies and their results.
21. For instance, in his path-breaking book on social mobility in Newburyport, Massachusetts in the years 1850-1880, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1964), Stephen Thernstrom makes no reference to military service or non-service. Commonly mobility studies evade the issue by skipping the 1860s; for example mobility in Boston has been analyzed from 1830-1970 - except for the years 1860-1880: Peter R. Knights, The Plain People of Boston, 1830-1860: A Study in City Growth (New York, 1971); and Stephen Thernstrom, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1973). Other important early analyses of mobility include Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion: Some Data and Speculations about Urban Population Mobility in Nineteenth-Century America" in Tamara Hareven (ed.), Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971), 17-47; and John Modell, "The Peopling of a Working-Class Ward: Reading, Pennsylvania, 1850," Journal of Social History 5 (1971): 71-95. See Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 220-239 for a survey of mobility studies and their results.
22. For instance, in his path-breaking book on social mobility in Newburyport, Massachusetts in the years 1850-1880, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1964), Stephen Thernstrom makes no reference to military service or non-service. Commonly mobility studies evade the issue by skipping the 1860s; for example mobility in Boston has been analyzed from 1830-1970 - except for the years 1860-1880: Peter R. Knights, The Plain People of Boston, 1830-1860: A Study in City Growth (New York, 1971); and Stephen Thernstrom, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1973). Other important early analyses of mobility include Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion: Some Data and Speculations about Urban Population Mobility in Nineteenth-Century America" in Tamara Hareven (ed.), Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971), 17-47; and John Modell, "The Peopling of a Working-Class Ward: Reading, Pennsylvania, 1850," Journal of Social History 5 (1971): 71-95. See Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 220-239 for a survey of mobility studies and their results.
23. For instance, in his path-breaking book on social mobility in Newburyport, Massachusetts in the years 1850-1880, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1964), Stephen Thernstrom makes no reference to military service or non-service. Commonly mobility studies evade the issue by skipping the 1860s; for example mobility in Boston has been analyzed from 1830-1970 - except for the years 1860-1880: Peter R. Knights, The Plain People of Boston, 1830-1860: A Study in City Growth (New York, 1971); and Stephen Thernstrom, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1973). Other important early analyses of mobility include Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion: Some Data and Speculations about Urban Population Mobility in Nineteenth-Century America" in Tamara Hareven (ed.), Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971), 17-47; and John Modell, "The Peopling of a Working-Class Ward: Reading, Pennsylvania, 1850," Journal of Social History 5 (1971): 71-95. See Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 220-239 for a survey of mobility studies and their results.
24. For instance, in his path-breaking book on social mobility in Newburyport, Massachusetts in the years 1850-1880, Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1964), Stephen Thernstrom makes no reference to military service or non-service. Commonly mobility studies evade the issue by skipping the 1860s; for example mobility in Boston has been analyzed from 1830-1970 - except for the years 1860-1880: Peter R. Knights, The Plain People of Boston, 1830-1860: A Study in City Growth (New York, 1971); and Stephen Thernstrom, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1973). Other important early analyses of mobility include Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion: Some Data and Speculations about Urban Population Mobility in Nineteenth-Century America" in Tamara Hareven (ed.), Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971), 17-47; and John Modell, "The Peopling of a Working-Class Ward: Reading, Pennsylvania, 1850," Journal of Social History 5 (1971): 71-95. See Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 220-239 for a survey of mobility studies and their results.
25. Richard Kohn, "The Social History of the American Soldier: A Review and Prospectus for Research," American Historical Review 86 (1981): 553-567; and Maris A. Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians Lost the Civil War? Some Preliminary Demographic Speculations," Journal of American History 76 (June 1989): 34-58.
26. Richard Kohn, "The Social History of the American Soldier: A Review and Prospectus for Research," American Historical Review 86 (1981): 553-567; and Maris A. Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians Lost the Civil War? Some Preliminary Demographic Speculations," Journal of American History 76 (June 1989): 34-58.
27. On common soldiers' experiences, Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987); Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers: Their Experiences and Their Expectations (New York, 1988); idem, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993); James I. Robertson, Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, SC, 1988); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997); and Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, KS, 1997). For veterans, Stuart McConnell, Glorious Contentment: The Grand Army of the Republic, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992); one might also cite Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 1992), though her analysis focuses on the politics of pensions, not on veterans themselves. A number of recent dissertations also examine veterans' experiences, though not their geographic and social mobility.
28. On common soldiers' experiences, Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987); Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers: Their Experiences and Their Expectations (New York, 1988); idem, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993); James I. Robertson, Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, SC, 1988); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997); and Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, KS, 1997). For veterans, Stuart McConnell, Glorious Contentment: The Grand Army of the Republic, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992); one might also cite Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 1992), though her analysis focuses on the politics of pensions, not on veterans themselves. A number of recent dissertations also examine veterans' experiences, though not their geographic and social mobility.
29. On common soldiers' experiences, Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987); Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers: Their Experiences and Their Expectations (New York, 1988); idem, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993); James I. Robertson, Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, SC, 1988); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997); and Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, KS, 1997). For veterans, Stuart McConnell, Glorious Contentment: The Grand Army of the Republic, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992); one might also cite Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 1992), though her analysis focuses on the politics of pensions, not on veterans themselves. A number of recent dissertations also examine veterans' experiences, though not their geographic and social mobility.
30. On common soldiers' experiences, Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987); Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers: Their Experiences and Their Expectations (New York, 1988); idem, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993); James I. Robertson, Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, SC, 1988); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997); and Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, KS, 1997). For veterans, Stuart McConnell, Glorious Contentment: The Grand Army of the Republic, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992); one might also cite Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 1992), though her analysis focuses on the politics of pensions, not on veterans themselves. A number of recent dissertations also examine veterans' experiences, though not their geographic and social mobility.
31. On common soldiers' experiences, Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987); Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers: Their Experiences and Their Expectations (New York, 1988); idem, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993); James I. Robertson, Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, SC, 1988); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997); and Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, KS, 1997). For veterans, Stuart McConnell, Glorious Contentment: The Grand Army of the Republic, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992); one might also cite Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 1992), though her analysis focuses on the politics of pensions, not on veterans themselves. A number of recent dissertations also examine veterans' experiences, though not their geographic and social mobility.
32. On common soldiers' experiences, Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987); Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers: Their Experiences and Their Expectations (New York, 1988); idem, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993); James I. Robertson, Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, SC, 1988); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997); and Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, KS, 1997). For veterans, Stuart McConnell, Glorious Contentment: The Grand Army of the Republic, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992); one might also cite Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 1992), though her analysis focuses on the politics of pensions, not on veterans themselves. A number of recent dissertations also examine veterans' experiences, though not their geographic and social mobility.
33. On common soldiers' experiences, Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987); Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers: Their Experiences and Their Expectations (New York, 1988); idem, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993); James I. Robertson, Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, SC, 1988); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997); and Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, KS, 1997). For veterans, Stuart McConnell, Glorious Contentment: The Grand Army of the Republic, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992); one might also cite Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 1992), though her analysis focuses on the politics of pensions, not on veterans themselves. A number of recent dissertations also examine veterans' experiences, though not their geographic and social mobility.
34. On common soldiers' experiences, Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987); Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers: Their Experiences and Their Expectations (New York, 1988); idem, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993); James I. Robertson, Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, SC, 1988); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997); and Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, KS, 1997). For veterans, Stuart McConnell, Glorious Contentment: The Grand Army of the Republic, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992); one might also cite Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 1992), though her analysis focuses on the politics of pensions, not on veterans themselves. A number of recent dissertations also examine veterans' experiences, though not their geographic and social mobility.
35. Scholars studying late-twentieth-century veterans have found a similar pattern -after their service, veterans' incomes consistently lag behind those of their non-veteran counterparts. See, for example, Joshua D. Angrist, "Estimating the Labor-Market Impact of Voluntary Military Service Using the Social-Security Data on Military Applicants," Econometrica 66 (1998): 249-288; idem, "Lifetime Earnings and the Vietnam Era Draft Lottery: Evidence from Social Security Administrative Records," American Economic Review 80 (1990): 313-336; Mark C. Berger, "The Civilian Earnings Experience of Vietnam-Era Veterans," Journal of Human Resources 18 (1983): 455-479; and Guido W. Imbens and W. Vanderklaauw, "Evaluating the Cost of Conscription in the Netherlands," Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13 (1995): 207-215.
36. Scholars studying late-twentieth-century veterans have found a similar pattern - after their service, veterans' incomes consistently lag behind those of their non-veteran counterparts. See, for example, Joshua D. Angrist, "Estimating the Labor-Market Impact of Voluntary Military Service Using the Social-Security Data on Military Applicants," Econometrica 66 (1998): 249-288; idem, "Lifetime Earnings and the Vietnam Era Draft Lottery: Evidence from Social Security Administrative Records," American Economic Review 80 (1990): 313-336; Mark C. Berger, "The Civilian Earnings Experience of Vietnam-Era Veterans," Journal of Human Resources 18 (1983): 455-479; and Guido W. Imbens and W. Vanderklaauw, "Evaluating the Cost of Conscription in the Netherlands," Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13 (1995): 207-215.
37. Scholars studying late-twentieth-century veterans have found a similar pattern - after their service, veterans' incomes consistently lag behind those of their non-veteran counterparts. See, for example, Joshua D. Angrist, "Estimating the Labor-Market Impact of Voluntary Military Service Using the Social-Security Data on Military Applicants," Econometrica 66 (1998): 249-288; idem, "Lifetime Earnings and the Vietnam Era Draft Lottery: Evidence from Social Security Administrative Records," American Economic Review 80 (1990): 313-336; Mark C. Berger, "The Civilian Earnings Experience of Vietnam-Era Veterans," Journal of Human Resources 18 (1983): 455-479; and Guido W. Imbens and W. Vanderklaauw, "Evaluating the Cost of Conscription in the Netherlands," Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13 (1995): 207-215.
38. Scholars studying late-twentieth-century veterans have found a similar pattern - after their service, veterans' incomes consistently lag behind those of their non-veteran counterparts. See, for example, Joshua D. Angrist, "Estimating the Labor-Market Impact of Voluntary Military Service Using the Social-Security Data on Military Applicants," Econometrica 66 (1998): 249-288; idem, "Lifetime Earnings and the Vietnam Era Draft Lottery: Evidence from Social Security Administrative Records," American Economic Review 80 (1990): 313-336; Mark C. Berger, "The Civilian Earnings Experience of Vietnam-Era Veterans," Journal of Human Resources 18 (1983): 455-479; and Guido W. Imbens and W. Vanderklaauw, "Evaluating the Cost of Conscription in the Netherlands," Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13 (1995): 207-215.
39. For quotes in text: Weekly Express & Herald, 22 April 1857; Dubuque City Directory [1856] (Dubuque, n.d.), 33; and Times, 17 May 1858. For more on Dubuque's history and pre-war economic development see Russell Lee Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization: The Civil War and the Formation of Urban-Industrial Society in a Northern City" (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1996), chapters 1-3. Historian Timothy R. Mahoney provides useful analysis of upper-Midwestern commerce in: "Urban History in a Regional Context: River Towns on the Upper Mississippi, 1840-1860," Journal of American History 72 (Sept. 1985): 318-339 [esp. 322-325, figures 2-5]; and River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820-1870 (New York, 1990).
40. For quotes in text: Weekly Express & Herald, 22 April 1857; Dubuque City Directory [1856] (Dubuque, n.d.), 33; and Times, 17 May 1858. For more on Dubuque's history and pre-war economic development see Russell Lee Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization: The Civil War and the Formation of Urban-Industrial Society in a Northern City" (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1996), chapters 1-3. Historian Timothy R. Mahoney provides useful analysis of upper-Midwestern commerce in: "Urban History in a Regional Context: River Towns on the Upper Mississippi, 1840-1860," Journal of American History 72 (Sept. 1985): 318-339 [esp. 322-325, figures 2-5]; and River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820-1870 (New York, 1990).
41. For quotes in text: Weekly Express & Herald, 22 April 1857; Dubuque City Directory [1856] (Dubuque, n.d.), 33; and Times, 17 May 1858. For more on Dubuque's history and pre-war economic development see Russell Lee Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization: The Civil War and the Formation of Urban-Industrial Society in a Northern City" (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1996), chapters 1-3. Historian Timothy R. Mahoney provides useful analysis of upper-Midwestern commerce in: "Urban History in a Regional Context: River Towns on the Upper Mississippi, 1840-1860," Journal of American History 72 (Sept. 1985): 318-339 [esp. 322-325, figures 2-5]; and River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820-1870 (New York, 1990).
42. For quotes in text: Weekly Express & Herald, 22 April 1857; Dubuque City Directory [1856] (Dubuque, n.d.), 33; and Times, 17 May 1858. For more on Dubuque's history and pre-war economic development see Russell Lee Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization: The Civil War and the Formation of Urban-Industrial Society in a Northern City" (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1996), chapters 1-3. Historian Timothy R. Mahoney provides useful analysis of upper-Midwestern commerce in: "Urban History in a Regional Context: River Towns on the Upper Mississippi, 1840-1860," Journal of American History 72 (Sept. 1985): 318-339 [esp. 322-325, figures 2-5]; and River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820-1870 (New York, 1990).
43. For quotes in text: Weekly Express & Herald, 22 April 1857; Dubuque City Directory [1856] (Dubuque, n.d.), 33; and Times, 17 May 1858. For more on Dubuque's history and pre-war economic development see Russell Lee Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization: The Civil War and the Formation of Urban-Industrial Society in a Northern City" (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1996), chapters 1-3. Historian Timothy R. Mahoney provides useful analysis of upper-Midwestern commerce in: "Urban History in a Regional Context: River Towns on the Upper Mississippi, 1840-1860," Journal of American History 72 (Sept. 1985): 318-339 [esp. 322-325, figures 2-5]; and River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820-1870 (New York, 1990).
44. For quotes in text: Weekly Express & Herald, 22 April 1857; Dubuque City Directory [1856] (Dubuque, n.d.), 33; and Times, 17 May 1858. For more on Dubuque's history and pre-war economic development see Russell Lee Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization: The Civil War and the Formation of Urban-Industrial Society in a Northern City" (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1996), chapters 1-3. Historian Timothy R. Mahoney provides useful analysis of upper-Midwestern commerce in: "Urban History in a Regional Context: River Towns on the Upper Mississippi, 1840-1860," Journal of American History 72 (Sept. 1985): 318-339 [esp. 322-325, figures 2-5]; and River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820-1870 (New York, 1990).
45. In 1860, Detroit ranked 19th in population, 46th in manufacturing; by 1880, Detroit was 18th and 19th. Another future industrial center, Indianapolis, ranked 48th and 90th in 1860 and 24th and 21st in 1880. This is consistent with what other historians have said about the emergence of American industrialization - namely, that it developed slowly and unevenly across the country, especially in the period 1840-1880; see, e.g., Licht, Industrializing America; also David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (New York, 1982), esp. 48-99. Sources for rankings: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Eighth Census of the United States, 1860. Volume 4: Mortality and Miscellaneous Statistics (Washington, DC, 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880. Volume 3: Manufacturing (Washington, DC, 1883), 379-380. The 1870 Census volumes included neither population nor manufacturing rankings.
46. In 1860, Detroit ranked 19th in population, 46th in manufacturing; by 1880, Detroit was 18th and 19th. Another future industrial center, Indianapolis, ranked 48th and 90th in 1860 and 24th and 21st in 1880. This is consistent with what other historians have said about the emergence of American industrialization - namely, that it developed slowly and unevenly across the country, especially in the period 1840-1880; see, e.g., Licht, Industrializing America; also David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (New York, 1982), esp. 48-99. Sources for rankings: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Eighth Census of the United States, 1860. Volume 4: Mortality and Miscellaneous Statistics (Washington, DC, 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880. Volume 3: Manufacturing (Washington, DC, 1883), 379-380. The 1870 Census volumes included neither population nor manufacturing rankings.
47. In 1860, Detroit ranked 19th in population, 46th in manufacturing; by 1880, Detroit was 18th and 19th. Another future industrial center, Indianapolis, ranked 48th and 90th in 1860 and 24th and 21st in 1880. This is consistent with what other historians have said about the emergence of American industrialization - namely, that it developed slowly and unevenly across the country, especially in the period 1840-1880; see, e.g., Licht, Industrializing America; also David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (New York, 1982), esp. 48-99. Sources for rankings: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Eighth Census of the United States, 1860. Volume 4: Mortality and Miscellaneous Statistics (Washington, DC, 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880. Volume 3: Manufacturing (Washington, DC, 1883), 379-380. The 1870 Census volumes included neither population nor manufacturing rankings.
48. In 1860, Detroit ranked 19th in population, 46th in manufacturing; by 1880, Detroit was 18th and 19th. Another future industrial center, Indianapolis, ranked 48th and 90th in 1860 and 24th and 21st in 1880. This is consistent with what other historians have said about the emergence of American industrialization - namely, that it developed slowly and unevenly across the country, especially in the period 1840-1880; see, e.g., Licht, Industrializing America; also David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (New York, 1982), esp. 48-99. Sources for rankings: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Eighth Census of the United States, 1860. Volume 4: Mortality and Miscellaneous Statistics (Washington, DC, 1866), xviii-xix; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Tenth Census of the United States, 1880. Volume 3: Manufacturing (Washington, DC, 1883), 379-380. The 1870 Census volumes included neither population nor manufacturing rankings.
49. Quotes in text: Times, 11 September 1857; Express & Herald, 30 November ("Wall street vultures") and 27 March 1858 ("fashionable" women); Times, 13 July 1858 ("the axe"); and Express & Herald, 5 January 1859 ("love of gain").
50. Quotes in text: Times, 11 September 1857; Express & Herald, 30 November ("Wall street vultures") and 27 March 1858 ("fashionable" women); Times, 13 July 1858 ("the axe"); and Express & Herald, 5 January 1859 ("love of gain").
51. Quotes in text: Times, 11 September 1857; Express & Herald, 30 November ("Wall street vultures") and 27 March 1858 ("fashionable" women); Times, 13 July 1858 ("the axe"); and Express & Herald, 5 January 1859 ("love of gain").
52. Quotes in text: Times, 11 September 1857; Express & Herald, 30 November ("Wall street vultures") and 27 March 1858 ("fashionable" women); Times, 13 July 1858 ("the axe"); and Express & Herald, 5 January 1859 ("love of gain").
53. Quote from Northwestern Farmer and Horticultural Journal 5 (August 1860): 283; city population from Iowa Secretary of State, Census of Iowa for 1880 (Des Moines, 1883), 474. For discussion of geographic mobility and population volatility, see Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion"; and Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 221-228 (esp. Table 9.1, p.222).
54. Quote from Northwestern Farmer and Horticultural Journal 5 (August 1860): 283; city population from Iowa Secretary of State, Census of Iowa for 1880 (Des Moines, 1883), 474. For discussion of geographic mobility and population volatility, see Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion"; and Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 221-228 (esp. Table 9.1, p.222).
55. Quote from Northwestern Farmer and Horticultural Journal 5 (August 1860): 283; city population from Iowa Secretary of State, Census of Iowa for 1880 (Des Moines, 1883), 474. For discussion of geographic mobility and population volatility, see Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion"; and Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 221-228 (esp. Table 9.1, p.222).
56. Quote from Northwestern Farmer and Horticultural Journal 5 (August 1860): 283; city population from Iowa Secretary of State, Census of Iowa for 1880 (Des Moines, 1883), 474. For discussion of geographic mobility and population volatility, see Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion"; and Thernstrom, Other Bostonians, 221-228 (esp. Table 9.1, p.222).
57. Times, 10 April 1858; and Northwestern Farmer 3 (May 1858): 176. See also Northwestern Farmer 3 (April 1858): 126-127; Express & Herald, 2 December 1858; and Solon M. Langworthy diary, passim, but esp. p. 128 (undated entry in January 1859) [held at Iowa State Historical Society in Iowa City].
58. Times, 10 April 1858; and Northwestern Farmer 3 (May 1858): 176. See also Northwestern Farmer 3 (April 1858): 126-127; Express & Herald, 2 December 1858; and Solon M. Langworthy diary, passim, but esp. p. 128 (undated entry in January 1859) [held at Iowa State Historical Society in Iowa City].
59. Times, 10 April 1858; and Northwestern Farmer 3 (May 1858): 176. See also Northwestern Farmer 3 (April 1858): 126-127; Express & Herald, 2 December 1858; and Solon M. Langworthy diary, passim, but esp. p. 128 (undated entry in January 1859) [held at Iowa State Historical Society in Iowa City].
60. Times, 10 April 1858; and Northwestern Farmer 3 (May 1858): 176. See also Northwestern Farmer 3 (April 1858): 126-127; Express & Herald, 2 December 1858; and Solon M. Langworthy diary, passim, but esp. p. 128 (undated entry in January 1859) [held at Iowa State Historical Society in Iowa City].
61. Times, 10 April 1858; and Northwestern Farmer 3 (May 1858): 176. See also Northwestern Farmer 3 (April 1858): 126-127; Express & Herald, 2 December 1858; and Solon M. Langworthy diary, passim, but esp. p. 128 (undated entry in January 1859) [held at Iowa State Historical Society in Iowa City].
62. Express & Herald, 17 December 1858; Times, 30 March 1861 and 1 May 1864; Express & Herald, 15 October 1858. For a sampling of other comments, see Express & Herald, 10 March, 14 and 22 April and 27 November 1858, 31 March, 30 October, and 11 December 1859; and Times, 22 December 1857, 31 March, and 17, 18 November 1858, and 22 January 1859.
63. Express & Herald, 17 December 1858; Times, 30 March 1861 and 1 May 1864; Express & Herald, 15 October 1858. For a sampling of other comments, see Express & Herald, 10 March, 14 and 22 April and 27 November 1858, 31 March, 30 October, and 11 December 1859; and Times, 22 December 1857, 31 March, and 17, 18 November 1858, and 22 January 1859.
64. Express & Herald, 17 December 1858; Times, 30 March 1861 and 1 May 1864; Express & Herald, 15 October 1858. For a sampling of other comments, see Express & Herald, 10 March, 14 and 22 April and 27 November 1858, 31 March, 30 October, and 11 December 1859; and Times, 22 December 1857, 31 March, and 17, 18 November 1858, and 22 January 1859.
65. Express & Herald, 17 December 1858; Times, 30 March 1861 and 1 May 1864; Express & Herald, 15 October 1858. For a sampling of other comments, see Express & Herald, 10 March, 14 and 22 April and 27 November 1858, 31 March, 30 October, and 11 December 1859; and Times, 22 December 1857, 31 March, and 17, 18 November 1858, and 22 January 1859.
66. Express & Herald, 17 December 1858; Times, 30 March 1861 and 1 May 1864; Express & Herald, 15 October 1858. For a sampling of other comments, see Express & Herald, 10 March, 14 and 22 April and 27 November 1858, 31 March, 30 October, and 11 December 1859; and Times, 22 December 1857, 31 March, and 17, 18 November 1858, and 22 January 1859.
67. Times, 18 November 1858 ("unrestrained") and 15 May 1864 ("we believe"); for representative comments, see Times, 23 Apr. 1862, 23 May and 30 August 1863, and 15 May 1864; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, November 1863, p.5, January 1864, p. 5, August 1864, p.4, and October 1864, p.4. For military academy, see Times, 7 and 14 May, and 20 and 30 December 1862. At the end of the war, when the soldiers came home and voted solidly Democratic, even the Herald had cause to endorse military service; see Weekly Herald, 18 October and 22 November 1865. The positive view of military service continued to be important after the Civil War; see Michael Pearlman, To Make Democracy Safe for America: Patricians and Preparedness in the Progressive Era (Urbana, IL, 1984).
68. Times, 18 November 1858 ("unrestrained") and 15 May 1864 ("we believe"); for representative comments, see Times, 23 Apr. 1862, 23 May and 30 August 1863, and 15 May 1864; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, November 1863, p.5, January 1864, p. 5, August 1864, p.4, and October 1864, p.4. For military academy, see Times, 7 and 14 May, and 20 and 30 December 1862. At the end of the war, when the soldiers came home and voted solidly Democratic, even the Herald had cause to endorse military service; see Weekly Herald, 18 October and 22 November 1865. The positive view of military service continued to be important after the Civil War; see Michael Pearlman, To Make Democracy Safe for America: Patricians and Preparedness in the Progressive Era (Urbana, IL, 1984).
69. Times, 18 November 1858 ("unrestrained") and 15 May 1864 ("we believe"); for representative comments, see Times, 23 Apr. 1862, 23 May and 30 August 1863, and 15 May 1864; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, November 1863, p.5, January 1864, p. 5, August 1864, p.4, and October 1864, p.4. For military academy, see Times, 7 and 14 May, and 20 and 30 December 1862. At the end of the war, when the soldiers came home and voted solidly Democratic, even the Herald had cause to endorse military service; see Weekly Herald, 18 October and 22 November 1865. The positive view of military service continued to be important after the Civil War; see Michael Pearlman, To Make Democracy Safe for America: Patricians and Preparedness in the Progressive Era (Urbana, IL, 1984).
70. Times, 18 November 1858 ("unrestrained") and 15 May 1864 ("we believe"); for representative comments, see Times, 23 Apr. 1862, 23 May and 30 August 1863, and 15 May 1864; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, November 1863, p.5, January 1864, p. 5, August 1864, p.4, and October 1864, p.4. For military academy, see Times, 7 and 14 May, and 20 and 30 December 1862. At the end of the war, when the soldiers came home and voted solidly Democratic, even the Herald had cause to endorse military service; see Weekly Herald, 18 October and 22 November 1865. The positive view of military service continued to be important after the Civil War; see Michael Pearlman, To Make Democracy Safe for America: Patricians and Preparedness in the Progressive Era (Urbana, IL, 1984).
71. Times, 18 November 1858 ("unrestrained") and 15 May 1864 ("we believe"); for representative comments, see Times, 23 Apr. 1862, 23 May and 30 August 1863, and 15 May 1864; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, November 1863, p.5, January 1864, p. 5, August 1864, p.4, and October 1864, p.4. For military academy, see Times, 7 and 14 May, and 20 and 30 December 1862. At the end of the war, when the soldiers came home and voted solidly Democratic, even the Herald had cause to endorse military service; see Weekly Herald, 18 October and 22 November 1865. The positive view of military service continued to be important after the Civil War; see Michael Pearlman, To Make Democracy Safe for America: Patricians and Preparedness in the Progressive Era (Urbana, IL, 1984).
72. Times, 18 November 1858 ("unrestrained") and 15 May 1864 ("we believe"); for representative comments, see Times, 23 Apr. 1862, 23 May and 30 August 1863, and 15 May 1864; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, November 1863, p.5, January 1864, p. 5, August 1864, p.4, and October 1864, p.4. For military academy, see Times, 7 and 14 May, and 20 and 30 December 1862. At the end of the war, when the soldiers came home and voted solidly Democratic, even the Herald had cause to endorse military service; see Weekly Herald, 18 October and 22 November 1865. The positive view of military service continued to be important after the Civil War; see Michael Pearlman, To Make Democracy Safe for America: Patricians and Preparedness in the Progressive Era (Urbana, IL, 1984).
73. Iowa Religious Newsletter, February 1864, p. 5, and October 1865, p.5.
74. The list of Dubuque's soldiers was compiled by beginning with a list of all soldiers from Dubuque County and eliminating those who could be identified in various sources as not from Dubuque city. Key sources include: The History of Dubuque County, Iowa (Chicago, 1880), 421-451 (the county list); Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Roster and Record of Iowa Soldiers in the War of the Rebellion (Des Moines, 1911); Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, and Records of the Provost Marshal General's Bureau, RG 110, National Archives, Washington, DC; and Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Reports of the Adjutant General and Acting Quartermaster General of the State of Iowa for 1862, 1863, 1864-1865, and 1866 (Des Moines, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866). The percentage of the larger group found in the census, 45 percent, is lower than for other communities whose soldiers have been similarly analyzed, though Dubuque's population volatility undoubtedly accounts for much of that. For comparable studies of groups of soldiers from single communities, see Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians" [Newburyport, MA]; W.J. Rorabaugh, "Who Fought for the North in the Civil War? Concord, Massachusetts, Enlistments," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 695-701; and Thomas R. Kemp, "Community and War: The Civil War Experience of Two New Hampshire Towns," in Vinovskis (ed.), Towards a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays (New York, 1990), 31-77.
75. The list of Dubuque's soldiers was compiled by beginning with a list of all soldiers from Dubuque County and eliminating those who could be identified in various sources as not from Dubuque city. Key sources include: The History of Dubuque County, Iowa (Chicago, 1880), 421-451 (the county list); Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Roster and Record of Iowa Soldiers in the War of the Rebellion (Des Moines, 1911); Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, and Records of the Provost Marshal General's Bureau, RG 110, National Archives, Washington, DC; and Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Reports of the Adjutant General and Acting Quartermaster General of the State of Iowa for 1862, 1863, 1864-1865, and 1866 (Des Moines, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866). The percentage of the larger group found in the census, 45 percent, is lower than for other communities whose
76. The list of Dubuque's soldiers was compiled by beginning with a list of all soldiers from Dubuque County and eliminating those who could be identified in various sources as not from Dubuque city. Key sources include: The History of Dubuque County, Iowa (Chicago, 1880), 421-451 (the county list); Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Roster and Record of Iowa Soldiers in the War of the Rebellion (Des Moines, 1911); Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, and Records of the Provost Marshal General's Bureau, RG 110, National Archives, Washington, DC; and Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Reports of the Adjutant General and Acting Quartermaster General of the State of Iowa for 1862, 1863, 1864-1865, and 1866 (Des Moines, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866). The percentage of the larger group found in the census, 45 percent, is lower than for other communities whose soldiers have been similarly analyzed, though Dubuque's population volatility undoubtedly accounts for much of that. For comparable studies of groups of soldiers from single communities, see Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians" [Newburyport, MA]; W.J. Rorabaugh, "Who Fought for the North in the Civil War? Concord, Massachusetts, Enlistments," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 695-701; and Thomas R. Kemp, "Community and War: The Civil War Experience of Two New Hampshire Towns," in Vinovskis (ed.), Towards a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays (New York, 1990), 31-77.
77. The list of Dubuque's soldiers was compiled by beginning with a list of all soldiers from Dubuque County and eliminating those who could be identified in various sources as not from Dubuque city. Key sources include: The History of Dubuque County, Iowa (Chicago, 1880), 421-451 (the county list); Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Roster and Record of Iowa Soldiers in the War of the Rebellion (Des Moines, 1911); Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, and Records of the Provost Marshal General's Bureau, RG 110, National Archives, Washington, DC; and Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Reports of the Adjutant General and Acting Quartermaster General of the State of Iowa for 1862, 1863, 1864-1865, and 1866 (Des Moines, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866). The percentage of the larger group found in the census, 45 percent, is lower than for other communities whose soldiers have been similarly analyzed, though Dubuque's population volatility undoubtedly accounts for much of that. For comparable studies of groups of soldiers from single communities, see Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians" [Newburyport, MA]; W.J. Rorabaugh, "Who Fought for the North in the Civil War? Concord, Massachusetts, Enlistments," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 695-701; and Thomas R. Kemp, "Community and War: The Civil War Experience of Two New Hampshire Towns," in Vinovskis (ed.), Towards a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays (New York, 1990), 31-77.
78. The list of Dubuque's soldiers was compiled by beginning with a list of all soldiers from Dubuque County and eliminating those who could be identified in various sources as not from Dubuque city. Key sources include: The History of Dubuque County, Iowa (Chicago, 1880), 421-451 (the county list); Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Roster and Record of Iowa Soldiers in the War of the Rebellion (Des Moines, 1911); Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, and Records of the Provost Marshal General's Bureau, RG 110, National Archives, Washington, DC; and Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Reports of the Adjutant General and Acting Quartermaster General of the State of Iowa for 1862, 1863, 1864-1865, and 1866 (Des Moines, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866). The percentage of the larger group found in the census, 45 percent, is lower than for other communities whose soldiers have been similarly analyzed, though Dubuque's population volatility undoubtedly accounts for much of that. For comparable studies of groups of soldiers from single communities, see Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians" [Newburyport, MA]; W.J. Rorabaugh, "Who Fought for the North in the Civil War? Concord, Massachusetts, Enlistments," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 695-701; and Thomas R. Kemp, "Community and War: The Civil War Experience of Two New Hampshire Towns," in Vinovskis (ed.), Towards a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays (New York, 1990), 31-77.
79. The list of Dubuque's soldiers was compiled by beginning with a list of all soldiers from Dubuque County and eliminating those who could be identified in various sources as not from Dubuque city. Key sources include: The History of Dubuque County, Iowa (Chicago, 1880), 421-451 (the county list); Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Roster and Record of Iowa Soldiers in the War of the Rebellion (Des Moines, 1911); Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, and Records of the Provost Marshal General's Bureau, RG 110, National Archives, Washington, DC; and Iowa Adjutant General's Office, Reports of the Adjutant General and Acting Quartermaster General of the State of Iowa for 1862, 1863, 1864-1865, and 1866 (Des Moines, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866). The percentage of the larger group found in the census, 45 percent, is lower than for other communities whose soldiers have been similarly analyzed, though Dubuque's population volatility undoubtedly accounts for much of that. For comparable studies of groups of soldiers from single communities, see Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians" [Newburyport, MA]; W.J. Rorabaugh, "Who Fought for the North in the Civil War? Concord, Massachusetts, Enlistments," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 695-701; and Thomas R. Kemp, "Community and War: The Civil War Experience of Two New Hampshire Towns," in Vinovskis (ed.), Towards a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays (New York, 1990), 31-77.
80. See the discussion of recruiting in Dubuque in Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 241-305. Bounties had been used since early in the war by Federal, state, and local governments to stimulate enlistments. At the beginning there were no bounties, but the Federal government offered $100 starting in 1862, and in August 1862 Dubuque County temporarily added another $50. The Federal bounty increased to $300 in 1863, and early volunteers, some of whom had received no bounty money, could collect $400 by reenlisting. Then, as noted, in September 1864, the Dubuque County Board of Supervisors approved an additional $400 local bounty to try to escape the draft.
81. This follows Michael Katz's argument that a "two-class model" best describes the social structure of commercial capitalist and early industrial society. See Michael B. Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West: Family and Class in a Mid-Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1975); also Katz, Michael J. Doucet, and Mark J. Stern, The Social Organisation of Early Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1982), esp. 14-63. The terms "high and low nonmanual," however, come from Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (New York, 1989).
82. This follows Michael Katz's argument that a "two-class model" best describes the social structure of commercial capitalist and early industrial society. See Michael B. Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West: Family and Class in a Mid-Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1975); also Katz, Michael J. Doucet, and Mark J. Stern, The Social Organisation of Early Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1982), esp. 14-63. The terms "high and low nonmanual," however, come from Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (New York, 1989).
83. This follows Michael Katz's argument that a "two-class model" best describes the social structure of commercial capitalist and early industrial society. See Michael B. Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West: Family and Class in a Mid-Nineteenth-Century City (Cambridge, MA, 1975); also Katz, Michael J. Doucet, and Mark J. Stern, The Social Organisation of Early Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1982), esp. 14-63. The terms "high and low nonmanual," however, come from Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (New York, 1989).
84. Excluding soldiers in the group of 1,321 with no available occupations or with occupation farmer, 74.6 percent of the soldiers gave working-class occupations when they enlisted. There are two reasons to question the "farmer" designation in the service records. First "farmer" in the service records includes farmers as well as the unskilled farm laborers. And second, farmer seems to have been a catch-all category for the officers filling-out the enlistment papers. If they were at all zealous about their task, the officers had to categorize in some way anyone without steady employment; "farmer" was an obvious choice since nearly all had done something recently that might be considered farming, especially in a place like Dubuque. In Table 1, for example, 47 men whose military records said they were "farmers" are distributed among other (mostly working-class) occupations in the data from the census.
85. See, for example, Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians;" Kemp, "Community and War;" and Steven J. Buck, "'A Contest in which Blood Must Flow Like Water': Du Page County and the Civil War," Illinois Historical Journal 87 (1994): 2-20.
86. See, for example, Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians;" Kemp, "Community and War;" and Steven J. Buck, "'A Contest in which Blood Must Flow Like Water': Du Page County and the Civil War," Illinois Historical Journal 87 (1994): 2-20.
87. See, for example, Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians;" Kemp, "Community and War;" and Steven J. Buck, "'A Contest in which Blood Must Flow Like Water': Du Page County and the Civil War," Illinois Historical Journal 87 (1994): 2-20.
88. The discussion of who enlisted and family strategies is more fully developed in Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," esp. 306-394.
89. If a larger proportion of those found in the census had enlisted 1863-1865, it would have indicated that the soldiers (generally speaking) had established greater geographic stability before enlisting.
90. The civilian persistence data do not make a similar exclusion of the deceased. This was done on the assumption that the soldiers had a much higher death rate between 1861 and 1865 than the comparable set of men in the city, especially for men in the age cohorts producing most of the soldiers. But even including the 62 deceased soldiers in the data, the soldiers' persistence rate remains higher than the non-soldiers' rate: 46.2 percent.
91. For the specific examples, Federal Census Manuscript 1860, Population, Iowa, Dubuque Co., p. 107 (Styles) and 135 (Lambert); and Federal Census Manuscript 1870, Population, Iowa, Dubuque City, 3rd Ward, p. 106 (Reuben and Alonzo Styles), 4th Ward, p.86 (Edwin Styles), and Julien Township, p. 31 (Lambert). See also Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, National Archives: Edwin Styles, 21st Iowa Infantry; Alonzo Styles, 21st Iowa Infantry; and John Lambert (spelled "Lampert"), 1st and 16th Iowa Infantries.
92. For the specific examples, Federal Census Manuscript 1860, Population, Iowa, Dubuque Co., p. 107 (Styles) and 135 (Lambert); and Federal Census Manuscript 1870, Population, Iowa, Dubuque City, 3rd Ward, p. 106 (Reuben and Alonzo Styles), 4th Ward, p.86 (Edwin Styles), and Julien Township, p. 31 (Lambert). See also Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, National Archives: Edwin Styles, 21st Iowa Infantry; Alonzo Styles, 21st Iowa Infantry; and John Lambert (spelled "Lampert"), 1st and 16th Iowa Infantries.
93. For the specific examples, Federal Census Manuscript 1860, Population, Iowa, Dubuque Co., p. 107 (Styles) and 135 (Lambert); and Federal Census Manuscript 1870, Population, Iowa, Dubuque City, 3rd Ward, p. 106 (Reuben and Alonzo Styles), 4th Ward, p.86 (Edwin Styles), and Julien Township, p. 31 (Lambert). See also Compiled Military Service Records, RG 94, National Archives: Edwin Styles, 21st Iowa Infantry; Alonzo Styles, 21st Iowa Infantry; and John Lambert (spelled "Lampert"), 1st and 16th Iowa Infantries.
94. Luther W. Jackson diary, published as "A Prisoner of War," Annals of Iowa, 3rd series, 19 (1933): 23-41; see 27, 29, and 31 for quotes in text. All spellings as in original.
95. For quotes, in order: Times, 7 October 1862; Semi-Weekly Times, 3 October 1865; Times, 21 July 1863, 13 November 1862, and 27 June 1864.
96. For quotes, in order: Times, 7 October 1862; Semi-Weekly Times, 3 October 1865; Times, 21 July 1863, 13 November 1862, and 27 June 1864.
97. For quotes, in order: Times, 7 October 1862; Semi-Weekly Times, 3 October 1865; Times, 21 July 1863, 13 November 1862, and 27 June 1864.
98. Times, 8 July 1864; and see Times, 1 November 1862 for a Dubuque soldier's opinion about the Western frontier. For other negative assessments of the "other" section, see, e.g., Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 90-147; idem, Vacant Chair, 135-150; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126.
99. Times, 8 July 1864; and see Times, 1 November 1862 for a Dubuque soldier's opinion about the Western frontier. For other negative assessments of the "other" section, see, e.g., Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 90-147; idem, Vacant Chair, 135-150; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126.
100. Times, 8 July 1864; and see Times, 1 November 1862 for a Dubuque soldier's opinion about the Western frontier. For other negative assessments of the "other" section, see, e.g., Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 90-147; idem, Vacant Chair, 135-150; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126.
101. Times, 8 July 1864; and see Times, 1 November 1862 for a Dubuque soldier's opinion about the Western frontier. For other negative assessments of the "other" section, see, e.g., Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 90-147; idem, Vacant Chair, 135-150; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126.
102. Times, 8 July 1864; and see Times, 1 November 1862 for a Dubuque soldier's opinion about the Western frontier. For other negative assessments of the "other" section, see, e.g., Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 90-147; idem, Vacant Chair, 135-150; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126.
103. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
104. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
105. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
106. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
107. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
108. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
109. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
110. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
111. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
112. Iowa Adjutant's Report for 1866, 268-275 (16th Infantry) and 182-183 (9th); Semi-Weekly Times, 18 July 1865 (27th); and Jackson, "A Prisoner of War," 27. For other soldiers' comments about the virtues of "home," see Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers, 3-23; idem, Vacant Chair, 19-37; Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 3-18, 102-116; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 80-89, 131-147; and Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 122-126. On nineteenth-century mobility, Thernstrom and Knights note that "a far larger migratory stream moved eastward and cityward" than to the frontier; Modell, for one, emphasizes the shorter moves. Thernstrom and Knights, "Men in Motion," quote from 19; Modell, "Peopling of a Working-Class Ward."
113. Times, 15 May 1864, 24 August 1862, and 12 December 1864; and Semi-Weekly Times, 1 August 1865. For more emphasis on "gratitude" see, e.g., Times, 11 July and 20 August 1863, 4 May 1864; Semi-Weekly Times, 25 August and 15 September 1865; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, October 1865, p. 5.
114. Times, 15 May 1864, 24 August 1862, and 12 December 1864; and Semi-Weekly Times, 1 August 1865. For more emphasis on "gratitude" see, e.g., Times, 11 July and 20 August 1863, 4 May 1864; Semi-Weekly Times, 25 August and 15 September 1865; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, October 1865, p. 5.
115. Times, 15 May 1864, 24 August 1862, and 12 December 1864; and Semi-Weekly Times, 1 August 1865. For more emphasis on "gratitude" see, e.g., Times, 11 July and 20 August 1863, 4 May 1864; Semi-Weekly Times, 25 August and 15 September 1865; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, October 1865, p. 5.
116. Times, 15 May 1864, 24 August 1862, and 12 December 1864; and Semi-Weekly Times, 1 August 1865. For more emphasis on "gratitude" see, e.g., Times, 11 July and 20 August 1863, 4 May 1864; Semi-Weekly Times, 25 August and 15 September 1865; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, October 1865, p. 5.
117. Times, 15 May 1864, 24 August 1862, and 12 December 1864; and Semi-Weekly Times, 1 August 1865. For more emphasis on "gratitude" see, e.g., Times, 11 July and 20 August 1863, 4 May 1864; Semi-Weekly Times, 25 August and 15 September 1865; and Iowa Religious Newsletter, October 1865, p. 5.
118. Specific percentages are: 1860 - business class 28.4 percent (high nonmanual 8.3; low nonmanual 20.1); working class 68.4 percent (artisan 29.8; unskilled 38.5); 1870 -business class 28.0 percent (high nonmanual 4.4; low nonmanual 23.7); working class 67.1 percent (artisan 35.9; unskilled 31.2). Farmers increased their percentage from 3.0 in 1860 to 4.8 in 1870. These numbers exclude women and any men with no occupation listed.
119. These individuals generally called themselves "dealers" or "agents" in 1870; the number of dealers and agents increased from ninety-one in 1860 to 308 in 1870. The difference between a "merchant" and a dealer or agent - the reason the one is high and the others low nonmanual - is subtle, yet very significant. It involves ownership: Agents or dealers usually represented someone else's company in the city and sold their product (e.g., sewing machines); merchants ran a business which required finding suppliers, where necessary arranging for shipment of goods to Dubuque (and often a trip to New York or elsewhere in the East to select stock), maintaining a sufficient stock on hand, marketing, etc. - all things which the parent company generally handled for the agent or dealer.
120. Steven J. Ross, Workers on the Edge: Work Leisure, and Politics in Industrializing Cincinnati, 1788-1890 (New York, 1985), 97-118.
121. The possibility that the soldiers changing status this way had been disabled in the army was checked, but both Richard Fengler and Peter Lorimier returned home in apparent good health (at least as far as evidence in their service records). On the other hand, although no veterans wounded, injured, or discharged for illness moved back to their parents' household, eleven who had been sons left their parents' household during the decade; only four stayed with their parents.
122. And even the growth of property ownership among unskilled families of soldiers, for example, was the product of shifts into the unskilled category from the no occupation category.
123. It is impossible, given the current arrangement of the data, to link a specific individual with the age of his parents; nor is it possible to analyze only those fathers or mothers of soldiers whose soldier-son(s) remained at home. But singling out the fathers of soldiers in 1870 - whether the soldier was living at home or not - their average age was 57.1 years; fathers in 1870 who had no sons enlist in the Union Army averaged 48.3 years. The average ages of the "sons" in Table 5 was 25.7 for veterans and 21.5 for non-veterans (excluding any males under age 18 in 1870, but including sons of female heads of household).
124. Persistence rate for non-soldier sons computed from sons of heads of household, aged 8 and over in 1860 (to make them better approximate the male persisters 18 and over in 1870). In raw numbers, 102 of 195 surviving soldier-sons persisted; 564 of 1284 non-soldier sons persisted - the non-soldiers' numbers differ from those in the Tables, because the Tables use 1870, not 1860 ages to determine inclusion.
125. Age might be thought a factor in this - one might assume the soldier-sons who left home tended to be older than the non-soldier-sons who stayed home. Comparing soldiers with non-soldiers according to 1870 age groups, this turns out not to have been the case -younger veterans had a greater tendency to leave home than younger non-veterans. For those still living in Dubuque, the number and percentage leaving their parents' home to live on their own are: veterans non-vet. AGE n % n % 18-22 2 25.0 38 11.8 23-27 30 58.8 56 38.4 28-32 23 71.9 46 66.7 33-37 5 71.4 31 93.9 38-45 4 100.0 11 78.6
126. In raw numbers, the business- and working-class skidders and climbers mentioned in the text were: for business-class skidders, 71 of 351 non-veterans and 10 of 54 veterans; and for working-class climbers, 110 of 768 non-veterans and 13 of 92 veterans. Farmers and males with no occupations or with unclassifiable occupations in either census year are excluded from these calculations.
127. This was measured by computing a "capital-to-wages" ratio (capital divided by wages) from the manufacturing censuses for 1860 and 1870 for each industry in Dubuque. Steven Ross argues that this ratio "yields the most accurate representation of capital intensive industries;" see Ross, Workers on the Edge, 351 fn.76. As measured by this ratio, nearly every industry (except those which had very low ratios - hence low capital - in 1860) in Dubuque became more labor intensive over the decade, especially Carriages/Wagons, Furniture, Wood/Lumber, Construction Materials, Machinery, and Printing/Books. See Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 727, for the data.
128. This was measured by computing a "capital-to-wages" ratio (capital divided by wages) from the manufacturing censuses for 1860 and 1870 for each industry in Dubuque. Steven Ross argues that this ratio "yields the most accurate representation of capital intensive industries;" see Ross, Workers on the Edge, 351 fn.76. As measured by this ratio, nearly every industry (except those which had very low ratios - hence low capital - in 1860) in Dubuque became more labor intensive over the decade, especially Carriages/Wagons, Furniture, Wood/Lumber, Construction Materials, Machinery, and Printing/Books. See Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 727, for the data.
129. Rank in the army, it might also be noted, seems to have had little correlation to upward mobility - six of the nine unskilled veterans who advanced into the business class finished their service as privates, while only two of the seven downwardly mobile low-nonmanual veterans ended as privates. Multiple classification analysis (MCA) confirms that a veteran's pre-war occupation had more of an effect on his 1870 occupation than his final military rank; using only the four hierarchical occupational groups (high nonmanual, low nonmanual, artisan, and unskilled) and four hierarchical rank groups (privates, NCOs, company-level officers, officers above company-level), 1860 occupation had an eta-squared value of .3721 versus .2209 for final military rank in determining 1870 occupations.
130. At present this remains an unexplained statistical quirk.
131. Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order 1877-1920 (New York, 1967); for scholars emphasizing the common experiences of military service, see above, note 6.
132. Solon M. Langworthy diary, p.268 (entry 20 Sept. 1863); all spellings as in original. Little Rock population from Bureau of the Census, Eighth Census, Volume I: Population, p. 19.
133. Solon M. Langworthy diary, p.268 (entry 20 Sept. 1863); all spellings as in original. Little Rock population from Bureau of the Census, Eighth Census, Volume I: Population, p. 19.
134. This argument is developed further in Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 545-614; and, for discussion of cities as "special types of environments," see Theodore Hershberg, "The New Urban History: Toward an Interdisciplinary History of the City" in Hershberg (ed.), Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the 19th Century (New York, 1981), 3-35. Evidence for an "urban" interpretation of military service creeps into the various analyses of common soldiers' "experiences" cited earlier, though these scholars do not pursue the point. And see McPherson, Battle Cry, 487, for a discussion of the military disease environment as comparable to an urban environment.
135. This argument is developed further in Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 545-614; and, for discussion of cities as "special types of environments," see Theodore Hershberg, "The New Urban History: Toward an Interdisciplinary History of the City" in Hershberg (ed.), Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the 19th Century (New York, 1981), 3-35. Evidence for an "urban" interpretation of military service creeps into the various analyses of common soldiers' "experiences" cited earlier, though these scholars do not pursue the point. And see McPherson, Battle Cry, 487, for a discussion of the military disease environment as comparable to an urban environment.
136. This argument is developed further in Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 545-614; and, for discussion of cities as "special types of environments," see Theodore Hershberg, "The New Urban History: Toward an Interdisciplinary History of the City" in Hershberg (ed.), Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the 19th Century (New York, 1981), 3-35. Evidence for an "urban" interpretation of military service creeps into the various analyses of common soldiers' "experiences" cited earlier, though these scholars do not pursue the point. And see McPherson, Battle Cry, 487, for a discussion of the military disease environment as comparable to an urban environment.
137. Times, 8 March 1862, and 15 August 1864. For further elaboration of this argument see Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 468-544. See also Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 133-142 for more comments from soldiers using "work" as a means of understanding military service.
138. Times, 8 March 1862, and 15 August 1864. For further elaboration of this argument see Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 468-544. See also Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 133-142 for more comments from soldiers using "work" as a means of understanding military service.
139. Times, 8 March 1862, and 15 August 1864. For further elaboration of this argument see Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 468-544. See also Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 133-142 for more comments from soldiers using "work" as a means of understanding military service.
140. See Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 446-467 for data on mobility in the army.
141. Jacques van Doorn, The Soldier and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA, 1975), 8-16 [quote from 16]; and John Keegan, The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme (New York, 1976), 325. Also Waldemar Kaempffert, "War and Technology," The American Journal of Sociology 46 (Jan. 1941): 431-444, where it is argued that "industry learned everything, except invention, from war - organization, discipline, standardization, the co-ordination of transport and supply, the separation of line and staff, [and] the division of labor."(443)
142. Jacques van Doorn, The Soldier and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA, 1975), 8-16 [quote from 16]; and John Keegan, The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme (New York, 1976), 325. Also Waldemar Kaempffert, "War and Technology," The American Journal of Sociology 46 (Jan. 1941): 431-444, where it is argued that "industry learned everything, except invention, from war - organization, discipline, standardization, the co-ordination of transport and supply, the separation of line and staff, [and] the division of labor."(443)
143. Jacques van Doorn, The Soldier and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA, 1975), 8-16 [quote from 16]; and John Keegan, The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme (New York, 1976), 325. Also Waldemar Kaempffert, "War and Technology," The American Journal of Sociology 46 (Jan. 1941): 431-444, where it is argued that "industry learned everything, except invention, from war - organization, discipline, standardization, the co-ordination of transport and supply, the separation of line and staff, [and] the division of labor."(443)
144. See the suggestive argument in Kenneth P. Langton, "The Influence of Military Service on Social Consciousness and Protest Behavior: A Study of Peruvian Mine Workers," Comparative Political Studies 16 (1984): 479-504. Based on his interviews with Peruvian miners, Langton argues, among other things, that miners with military experience were less class aware, less likely to participate in strikes or other protest actions, and more likely to cite personal characteristics rather than "the system" when asked to explain the gap between the rich and poor. He thus concludes that "the military . . . is a potentially important but little understood source of adult socialization"(p.496) in non-industrialized societies.