Anorexia nervosa as viable behaviour: Extreme self-deprivation in historical context

History of Psychiatry

Volumn 10, Issue 38, 1999, Pages 205-225

  Liles, Elizabeth G ^b   Woods, Stephen C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANOREXIA NERVOSA; ARTICLE; DIET RESTRICTION; HISTORY; HUMAN; STARVATION;

ANOREXIA NERVOSA; FASTING; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, MEDIEVAL; HISTORY, MODERN 1601-; HUMANS; STARVATION;

EID: 0033147265     PISSN: 0957154X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0957154X9901003803     Document Type: Article

References (197)

1. For discussion of medical complications and associated medical disorders of AN, see J. Yager, H. E. Gwirtsman and C. K. Edelstein (eds), Special Problems in Managing Eating Disorders (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992). P. J. V. Beumont, J. D. Russell and S. W. Touyz, Treatment of anorexia nervosa', Lancet, 341 (1993), 1635-40.
2. For discussion of medical complications and associated medical disorders of AN, see J. Yager, H. E. Gwirtsman and C. K. Edelstein (eds), Special Problems in Managing Eating Disorders (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992). P. J. V. Beumont, J. D. Russell and S. W. Touyz, Treatment of anorexia nervosa', Lancet, 341 (1993), 1635-40.
3. E. D. Eckert, K. A. Halmi, P. Marchi, W. Grove and R. Crosby, Ten-year follow-up of anorexia nervosa: clinical course and outcome", Psychological Medicine, xxv (1995), 143-56. A. Hall, E. Slim, F. Hawker and C. Salmond, 'Anorexia nervosa: long-term outcome in 50 female patients', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlv (1984), 407-13; D. B. Herzog, N. R. Sacks, M. B. Keller, P. W. Lavori, K. B. von Ranson and H. M. Gray, 'Patterns and predictors of recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxii (1993), 835-42; P. Santonastaso, G. Favaretto and G. Canton, 'Anorexia nervosa in Italy: clinical features and outcome in a long-term follow-up study', Psychopathology, xx (1987), 8-17; D. Schwartz and M. Thompson, 'Do anorectics get well? Current research and future needs', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxviii (1981), 319-23; K. Tolstrup, M. Brinch, T. Isager, S. Nielsen, J. Nystrup, B. Severin and N. S. Olesen, 'Long-term outcome of 151 cases of anorexia nervosa: The Copenhagen Anorexia Nervosa Follow-Up Study', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxi (1985), 380-7; H. C. Steinhausen, 'Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa: a review of research findings,' Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 239-49; T. Isager, M. Brinch, S. Kreiner and K. Tolstrup, 'Death and relapse in anorexia nervosa: survival analysis of 151 cases', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 515-21.
4. E. D. Eckert, K. A. Halmi, P. Marchi, W. Grove and R. Crosby, Ten-year follow-up of anorexia nervosa: clinical course and outcome", Psychological Medicine, xxv (1995), 143-56. A. Hall, E. Slim, F. Hawker and C. Salmond, 'Anorexia nervosa: long-term outcome in 50 female patients', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlv (1984), 407-13; D. B. Herzog, N. R. Sacks, M. B. Keller, P. W. Lavori, K. B. von Ranson and H. M. Gray, 'Patterns and predictors of recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxii (1993), 835-42; P. Santonastaso, G. Favaretto and G. Canton, 'Anorexia nervosa in Italy: clinical features and outcome in a long-term follow-up study', Psychopathology, xx (1987), 8-17; D. Schwartz and M. Thompson, 'Do anorectics get well? Current research and future needs', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxviii (1981), 319-23; K. Tolstrup, M. Brinch, T. Isager, S. Nielsen, J. Nystrup, B. Severin and N. S. Olesen, 'Long-term outcome of 151 cases of anorexia nervosa: The Copenhagen Anorexia Nervosa Follow-Up Study', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxi (1985), 380-7; H. C. Steinhausen, 'Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa: a review of research findings,' Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 239-49; T. Isager, M. Brinch, S. Kreiner and K. Tolstrup, 'Death and relapse in anorexia nervosa: survival analysis of 151 cases', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 515-21.
5. E. D. Eckert, K. A. Halmi, P. Marchi, W. Grove and R. Crosby, Ten-year follow-up of anorexia nervosa: clinical course and outcome", Psychological Medicine, xxv (1995), 143-56. A. Hall, E. Slim, F. Hawker and C. Salmond, 'Anorexia nervosa: long-term outcome in 50 female patients', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlv (1984), 407-13; D. B. Herzog, N. R. Sacks, M. B. Keller, P. W. Lavori, K. B. von Ranson and H. M. Gray, 'Patterns and predictors of recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxii (1993), 835-42; P. Santonastaso, G. Favaretto and G. Canton, 'Anorexia nervosa in Italy: clinical features and outcome in a long-term follow-up study', Psychopathology, xx (1987), 8-17; D. Schwartz and M. Thompson, 'Do anorectics get well? Current research and future needs', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxviii (1981), 319-23; K. Tolstrup, M. Brinch, T. Isager, S. Nielsen, J. Nystrup, B. Severin and N. S. Olesen, 'Long-term outcome of 151 cases of anorexia nervosa: The Copenhagen Anorexia Nervosa Follow-Up Study', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxi (1985), 380-7; H. C. Steinhausen, 'Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa: a review of research findings,' Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 239-49; T. Isager, M. Brinch, S. Kreiner and K. Tolstrup, 'Death and relapse in anorexia nervosa: survival analysis of 151 cases', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 515-21.
6. E. D. Eckert, K. A. Halmi, P. Marchi, W. Grove and R. Crosby, Ten-year follow-up of anorexia nervosa: clinical course and outcome", Psychological Medicine, xxv (1995), 143-56. A. Hall, E. Slim, F. Hawker and C. Salmond, 'Anorexia nervosa: long-term outcome in 50 female patients', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlv (1984), 407-13; D. B. Herzog, N. R. Sacks, M. B. Keller, P. W. Lavori, K. B. von Ranson and H. M. Gray, 'Patterns and predictors of recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxii (1993), 835-42; P. Santonastaso, G. Favaretto and G. Canton, 'Anorexia nervosa in Italy: clinical features and outcome in a long-term follow-up study', Psychopathology, xx (1987), 8-17; D. Schwartz and M. Thompson, 'Do anorectics get well? Current research and future needs', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxviii (1981), 319-23; K. Tolstrup, M. Brinch, T. Isager, S. Nielsen, J. Nystrup, B. Severin and N. S. Olesen, 'Long-term outcome of 151 cases of anorexia nervosa: The Copenhagen Anorexia Nervosa Follow-Up Study', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxi (1985), 380-7; H. C. Steinhausen, 'Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa: a review of research findings,' Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 239-49; T. Isager, M. Brinch, S. Kreiner and K. Tolstrup, 'Death and relapse in anorexia nervosa: survival analysis of 151 cases', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 515-21.
7. E. D. Eckert, K. A. Halmi, P. Marchi, W. Grove and R. Crosby, Ten-year follow-up of anorexia nervosa: clinical course and outcome", Psychological Medicine, xxv (1995), 143-56. A. Hall, E. Slim, F. Hawker and C. Salmond, 'Anorexia nervosa: long-term outcome in 50 female patients', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlv (1984), 407-13; D. B. Herzog, N. R. Sacks, M. B. Keller, P. W. Lavori, K. B. von Ranson and H. M. Gray, 'Patterns and predictors of recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxii (1993), 835-42; P. Santonastaso, G. Favaretto and G. Canton, 'Anorexia nervosa in Italy: clinical features and outcome in a long-term follow-up study', Psychopathology, xx (1987), 8-17; D. Schwartz and M. Thompson, 'Do anorectics get well? Current research and future needs', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxviii (1981), 319-23; K. Tolstrup, M. Brinch, T. Isager, S. Nielsen, J. Nystrup, B. Severin and N. S. Olesen, 'Long-term outcome of 151 cases of anorexia nervosa: The Copenhagen Anorexia Nervosa Follow-Up Study', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxi (1985), 380-7; H. C. Steinhausen, 'Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa: a review of research findings,' Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 239-49; T. Isager, M. Brinch, S. Kreiner and K. Tolstrup, 'Death and relapse in anorexia nervosa: survival analysis of 151 cases', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 515-21.
8. E. D. Eckert, K. A. Halmi, P. Marchi, W. Grove and R. Crosby, Ten-year follow-up of anorexia nervosa: clinical course and outcome", Psychological Medicine, xxv (1995), 143-56. A. Hall, E. Slim, F. Hawker and C. Salmond, 'Anorexia nervosa: long-term outcome in 50 female patients', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlv (1984), 407-13; D. B. Herzog, N. R. Sacks, M. B. Keller, P. W. Lavori, K. B. von Ranson and H. M. Gray, 'Patterns and predictors of recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxii (1993), 835-42; P. Santonastaso, G. Favaretto and G. Canton, 'Anorexia nervosa in Italy: clinical features and outcome in a long-term follow-up study', Psychopathology, xx (1987), 8-17; D. Schwartz and M. Thompson, 'Do anorectics get well? Current research and future needs', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxviii (1981), 319-23; K. Tolstrup, M. Brinch, T. Isager, S. Nielsen, J. Nystrup, B. Severin and N. S. Olesen, 'Long-term outcome of 151 cases of anorexia nervosa: The Copenhagen Anorexia Nervosa Follow-Up Study', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxi (1985), 380-7; H. C. Steinhausen, 'Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa: a review of research findings,' Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 239-49; T. Isager, M. Brinch, S. Kreiner and K. Tolstrup, 'Death and relapse in anorexia nervosa: survival analysis of 151 cases', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 515-21.
9. E. D. Eckert, K. A. Halmi, P. Marchi, W. Grove and R. Crosby, Ten-year follow-up of anorexia nervosa: clinical course and outcome", Psychological Medicine, xxv (1995), 143-56. A. Hall, E. Slim, F. Hawker and C. Salmond, 'Anorexia nervosa: long-term outcome in 50 female patients', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlv (1984), 407-13; D. B. Herzog, N. R. Sacks, M. B. Keller, P. W. Lavori, K. B. von Ranson and H. M. Gray, 'Patterns and predictors of recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxii (1993), 835-42; P. Santonastaso, G. Favaretto and G. Canton, 'Anorexia nervosa in Italy: clinical features and outcome in a long-term follow-up study', Psychopathology, xx (1987), 8-17; D. Schwartz and M. Thompson, 'Do anorectics get well? Current research and future needs', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxviii (1981), 319-23; K. Tolstrup, M. Brinch, T. Isager, S. Nielsen, J. Nystrup, B. Severin and N. S. Olesen, 'Long-term outcome of 151 cases of anorexia nervosa: The Copenhagen Anorexia Nervosa Follow-Up Study', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxi (1985), 380-7; H. C. Steinhausen, 'Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa: a review of research findings,' Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 239-49; T. Isager, M. Brinch, S. Kreiner and K. Tolstrup, 'Death and relapse in anorexia nervosa: survival analysis of 151 cases', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 515-21.
10. E. D. Eckert, K. A. Halmi, P. Marchi, W. Grove and R. Crosby, Ten-year follow-up of anorexia nervosa: clinical course and outcome", Psychological Medicine, xxv (1995), 143-56. A. Hall, E. Slim, F. Hawker and C. Salmond, 'Anorexia nervosa: long-term outcome in 50 female patients', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlv (1984), 407-13; D. B. Herzog, N. R. Sacks, M. B. Keller, P. W. Lavori, K. B. von Ranson and H. M. Gray, 'Patterns and predictors of recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxii (1993), 835-42; P. Santonastaso, G. Favaretto and G. Canton, 'Anorexia nervosa in Italy: clinical features and outcome in a long-term follow-up study', Psychopathology, xx (1987), 8-17; D. Schwartz and M. Thompson, 'Do anorectics get well? Current research and future needs', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxviii (1981), 319-23; K. Tolstrup, M. Brinch, T. Isager, S. Nielsen, J. Nystrup, B. Severin and N. S. Olesen, 'Long-term outcome of 151 cases of anorexia nervosa: The Copenhagen Anorexia Nervosa Follow-Up Study', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxi (1985), 380-7; H. C. Steinhausen, 'Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa: a review of research findings,' Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 239-49; T. Isager, M. Brinch, S. Kreiner and K. Tolstrup, 'Death and relapse in anorexia nervosa: survival analysis of 151 cases', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 515-21.
11. See S. van't Hof and M. Nicolson, 'The rise and fall of a fact: the increase in anorexia nervosa', Sociology of Health and Illness, xviii (1996), 581-608; E. Fombonne, 'Anorexia nervosa: no evidence of an increase, British Journal of Psychiatry, clxvi (1995), 466; K. J. Rohgman, H. M. Babigan, I. D. Goldberg et al., 'The increasing number of children using psychiatric services: analysis of a cumulative psychiatric case register,' Pediatrics, lxx (1982), 790-801; P. Williams and M. King, 'The "epidemic" of anorexia nervosa: another medical myth?' Lancet, I (1987), 205-7; S. Nielson, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa in Denmark from 1973 to 1987: a nationwide register study of psychiatric admission', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxxi (1990), 507-14.
12. See S. van't Hof and M. Nicolson, 'The rise and fall of a fact: the increase in anorexia nervosa', Sociology of Health and Illness, xviii (1996), 581-608; E. Fombonne, 'Anorexia nervosa: no evidence of an increase, British Journal of Psychiatry, clxvi (1995), 466; K. J. Rohgman, H. M. Babigan, I. D. Goldberg et al., 'The increasing number of children using psychiatric services: analysis of a cumulative psychiatric case register,' Pediatrics, lxx (1982), 790-801; P. Williams and M. King, 'The "epidemic" of anorexia nervosa: another medical myth?' Lancet, I (1987), 205-7; S. Nielson, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa in Denmark from 1973 to 1987: a nationwide register study of psychiatric admission', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxxi (1990), 507-14.
13. See S. van't Hof and M. Nicolson, 'The rise and fall of a fact: the increase in anorexia nervosa', Sociology of Health and Illness, xviii (1996), 581-608; E. Fombonne, 'Anorexia nervosa: no evidence of an increase, British Journal of Psychiatry, clxvi (1995), 466; K. J. Rohgman, H. M. Babigan, I. D. Goldberg et al., 'The increasing number of children using psychiatric services: analysis of a cumulative psychiatric case register,' Pediatrics, lxx (1982), 790-801; P. Williams and M. King, 'The "epidemic" of anorexia nervosa: another medical myth?' Lancet, I (1987), 205-7; S. Nielson, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa in Denmark from 1973 to 1987: a nationwide register study of psychiatric admission', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxxi (1990), 507-14.
14. See S. van't Hof and M. Nicolson, 'The rise and fall of a fact: the increase in anorexia nervosa', Sociology of Health and Illness, xviii (1996), 581-608; E. Fombonne, 'Anorexia nervosa: no evidence of an increase, British Journal of Psychiatry, clxvi (1995), 466; K. J. Rohgman, H. M. Babigan, I. D. Goldberg et al., 'The increasing number of children using psychiatric services: analysis of a cumulative psychiatric case register,' Pediatrics, lxx (1982), 790-801; P. Williams and M. King, 'The "epidemic" of anorexia nervosa: another medical myth?' Lancet, I (1987), 205-7; S. Nielson, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa in Denmark from 1973 to 1987: a nationwide register study of psychiatric admission', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxxi (1990), 507-14.
15. See S. van't Hof and M. Nicolson, 'The rise and fall of a fact: the increase in anorexia nervosa', Sociology of Health and Illness, xviii (1996), 581-608; E. Fombonne, 'Anorexia nervosa: no evidence of an increase, British Journal of Psychiatry, clxvi (1995), 466; K. J. Rohgman, H. M. Babigan, I. D. Goldberg et al., 'The increasing number of children using psychiatric services: analysis of a cumulative psychiatric case register,' Pediatrics, lxx (1982), 790-801; P. Williams and M. King, 'The "epidemic" of anorexia nervosa: another medical myth?' Lancet, I (1987), 205-7; S. Nielson, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa in Denmark from 1973 to 1987: a nationwide register study of psychiatric admission', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxxi (1990), 507-14.
16. A. R. Lucas, 'The eating disorder "epidemic": more apparent than real?' Pediatric Annals, xxi (1992), 746-51.
17. While delayed gastric emptying and a distorted sense of satiety may affect the anorexic's perception of hunger, many anorexics battle their own hunger throughout the course of the illness. See M. Selvini-Palazzoli, Self-starvation: From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1978), 21-4; P. E. Garfinkel, 'Perception of hunger and satiety in anorexia nervosa,' Psychological Medicine, iv (1974), 309-15; For discussion of anorexies' aberrant hunger and satiety perceptions, see K. A. Halmi, 'The psychobiology of eating behavior in anorexia nervosa,' Psychiatry Research, lxii (1996), 23-9; W. P. Owen, K. A. Halmi, J. Gibbs and G. P. Smith, 'Satiety responses in eating disorders. Conference on anorexia nervosa and related disorders', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 279-84.
18. While delayed gastric emptying and a distorted sense of satiety may affect the anorexic's perception of hunger, many anorexics battle their own hunger throughout the course of the illness. See M. Selvini-Palazzoli, Self-starvation: From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1978), 21-4; P. E. Garfinkel, 'Perception of hunger and satiety in anorexia nervosa,' Psychological Medicine, iv (1974), 309-15; For discussion of anorexies' aberrant hunger and satiety perceptions, see K. A. Halmi, 'The psychobiology of eating behavior in anorexia nervosa,' Psychiatry Research, lxii (1996), 23-9; W. P. Owen, K. A. Halmi, J. Gibbs and G. P. Smith, 'Satiety responses in eating disorders. Conference on anorexia nervosa and related disorders', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 279-84.
19. While delayed gastric emptying and a distorted sense of satiety may affect the anorexic's perception of hunger, many anorexics battle their own hunger throughout the course of the illness. See M. Selvini-Palazzoli, Self-starvation: From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1978), 21-4; P. E. Garfinkel, 'Perception of hunger and satiety in anorexia nervosa,' Psychological Medicine, iv (1974), 309-15; For discussion of anorexies' aberrant hunger and satiety perceptions, see K. A. Halmi, 'The psychobiology of eating behavior in anorexia nervosa,' Psychiatry Research, lxii (1996), 23-9; W. P. Owen, K. A. Halmi, J. Gibbs and G. P. Smith, 'Satiety responses in eating disorders. Conference on anorexia nervosa and related disorders', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 279-84.
20. While delayed gastric emptying and a distorted sense of satiety may affect the anorexic's perception of hunger, many anorexics battle their own hunger throughout the course of the illness. See M. Selvini-Palazzoli, Self-starvation: From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1978), 21-4; P. E. Garfinkel, 'Perception of hunger and satiety in anorexia nervosa,' Psychological Medicine, iv (1974), 309-15; For discussion of anorexies' aberrant hunger and satiety perceptions, see K. A. Halmi, 'The psychobiology of eating behavior in anorexia nervosa,' Psychiatry Research, lxii (1996), 23-9; W. P. Owen, K. A. Halmi, J. Gibbs and G. P. Smith, 'Satiety responses in eating disorders. Conference on anorexia nervosa and related disorders', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 279-84.
21. A. Keys, J. Brozek, A. Henschel, O. Michekson, H. L. Taylor, E. Simonson, A. S. Skinner and S. M. Wells, The Biology of Human Starvation (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1950), 784-6.
22. J. M. Eagles, M. I. Johnston, D. Hunter, M. Lobban and H. R. Millar, 'Increasing incidence of anorexia nervosa in the female population of Northeast Scotland', American Journal of Psychiatry, clii (1995), 1266-71.
23. G. Szmukler, C. McCance, L. McCrone and D. Hunter, 'Anorexia nervosa: a psychiatric case-register study from Aberdeen', Psychological Medicine, xvi (1986), 49-58.
24. J. Willi and S Grossman, 'Epidemiology of anorexia nervosa in a defined region of Switzerland', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxl (1983), 564-7.
25. A. R. Lucas, C. M. Beard, M. O'Fallen and L. T. Kurland, '50-year trends in the incidence of anorexia nervosa in Rochester, Minnesota: a population-based study', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxlviii (1991), 917-22.
26. See note 3.
27. Fombonne, op. cit., 466.
28. J. Cullberg and M. Engstrom-Lindberg, 'Prevalence and incidence of eating disorders in a suburban area', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxviii (1989), 314-19; A. Whitaker, M. Davies, D. Shaffer, J. Johnson, S. Abrams, B. T. Walsh and K. Kalikow, 'The struggle to be thin: a survey of anorexic symptoms in a non-referred adolescent population', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 143-63.
29. J. Cullberg and M. Engstrom-Lindberg, 'Prevalence and incidence of eating disorders in a suburban area', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, lxxviii (1989), 314-19; A. Whitaker, M. Davies, D. Shaffer, J. Johnson, S. Abrams, B. T. Walsh and K. Kalikow, 'The struggle to be thin: a survey of anorexic symptoms in a non-referred adolescent population', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 143-63.
30. Williams and King, op. cit.; Nielson, op. cit.
31. Williams and King, op. cit.; Nielson, op. cit.
32. H. W. Hoek, 'Review of the epidemiological studies of eating disorders', International Review of Psychiatry, v (1993), 63.
33. V. F. DiNicola, 'Anorexia multiforme: self-starvation in historical and cultural context. Part II: Anorexia nervosa as a culture-reactive syndrome", Trancultural Psychiatric Research Review, xxvii (1990), 245-86; L. Sing, 'Reconsidering the status of anorexia nervosa as a western culture-bound syndrome', Social Science and Medicine, xlii (1995), 21-34; For a summary of this and other demographic characteristics, see A. Wakeling, 'Epidemiology of anorexia nervosa', Psychiatric Research, lxii (1996), 3-9.
34. V. F. DiNicola, 'Anorexia multiforme: self-starvation in historical and cultural context. Part II: Anorexia nervosa as a culture-reactive syndrome", Trancultural Psychiatric Research Review, xxvii (1990), 245-86; L. Sing, 'Reconsidering the status of anorexia nervosa as a western culture-bound syndrome', Social Science and Medicine, xlii (1995), 21-34; For a summary of this and other demographic characteristics, see A. Wakeling, 'Epidemiology of anorexia nervosa', Psychiatric Research, lxii (1996), 3-9.
35. V. F. DiNicola, 'Anorexia multiforme: self-starvation in historical and cultural context. Part II: Anorexia nervosa as a culture-reactive syndrome", Trancultural Psychiatric Research Review, xxvii (1990), 245-86; L. Sing, 'Reconsidering the status of anorexia nervosa as a western culture-bound syndrome', Social Science and Medicine, xlii (1995), 21-34; For a summary of this and other demographic characteristics, see A. Wakeling, 'Epidemiology of anorexia nervosa', Psychiatric Research, lxii (1996), 3-9.
36. W. Vandereycken and H. W. Hoek, 'Are eating disorders culture-bound syndromes?' In Psychobiology and Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa (Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992); B. Dolan, J. H. Lacey and C. Evans, 'Eating behaviour and attitudes to weight and shape in British women from three ethnic groups', British Journal of Psychiatry, clvii (1990), 523-8; C. M. Bulik, 'Eating disorders in immigrants: two case reports', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 133-41; T. M. Kope and W. H. Sack, 'Anorexia nervosa in Southeast Asian refugees: a report on three cases', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxvi (1987), 795-7.
37. W. Vandereycken and H. W. Hoek, 'Are eating disorders culture-bound syndromes?' In Psychobiology and Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa (Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992); B. Dolan, J. H. Lacey and C. Evans, 'Eating behaviour and attitudes to weight and shape in British women from three ethnic groups', British Journal of Psychiatry, clvii (1990), 523-8; C. M. Bulik, 'Eating disorders in immigrants: two case reports', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 133-41; T. M. Kope and W. H. Sack, 'Anorexia nervosa in Southeast Asian refugees: a report on three cases', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxvi (1987), 795-7.
38. W. Vandereycken and H. W. Hoek, 'Are eating disorders culture-bound syndromes?' In Psychobiology and Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa (Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992); B. Dolan, J. H. Lacey and C. Evans, 'Eating behaviour and attitudes to weight and shape in British women from three ethnic groups', British Journal of Psychiatry, clvii (1990), 523-8; C. M. Bulik, 'Eating disorders in immigrants: two case reports', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 133-41; T. M. Kope and W. H. Sack, 'Anorexia nervosa in Southeast Asian refugees: a report on three cases', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxvi (1987), 795-7.
39. W. Vandereycken and H. W. Hoek, 'Are eating disorders culture-bound syndromes?' In Psychobiology and Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa (Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992); B. Dolan, J. H. Lacey and C. Evans, 'Eating behaviour and attitudes to weight and shape in British women from three ethnic groups', British Journal of Psychiatry, clvii (1990), 523-8; C. M. Bulik, 'Eating disorders in immigrants: two case reports', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 133-41; T. M. Kope and W. H. Sack, 'Anorexia nervosa in Southeast Asian refugees: a report on three cases', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxvi (1987), 795-7.
40. DiNicola, op. cit., 246-7.
41. H. W. Hoek, The incidence and prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in primary care', Psychological Medicine, xxi (1991), 455-60; Lucas et al. (1991), op. cit., 917-22; R. E. Kendell, D. J. Hall, A. Hailey and H. M. Babigian, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, iii (1973), 200-3; H. G. Pope, R. F. Champoux and J. E. Hudson, 'Eating disorders and socioeconomic class: anorexia nervosa and bulimia in nine communities', Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, clxxv (1987), 620-3; R. L. Pyle, 'The epidemiology of eating disorders', Pediatrician, xii (1983-85), 102-9.
42. H. W. Hoek, The incidence and prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in primary care', Psychological Medicine, xxi (1991), 455-60; Lucas et al. (1991), op. cit., 917-22; R. E. Kendell, D. J. Hall, A. Hailey and H. M. Babigian, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, iii (1973), 200-3; H. G. Pope, R. F. Champoux and J. E. Hudson, 'Eating disorders and socioeconomic class: anorexia nervosa and bulimia in nine communities', Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, clxxv (1987), 620-3; R. L. Pyle, 'The epidemiology of eating disorders', Pediatrician, xii (1983-85), 102-9.
43. H. W. Hoek, The incidence and prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in primary care', Psychological Medicine, xxi (1991), 455-60; Lucas et al. (1991), op. cit., 917-22; R. E. Kendell, D. J. Hall, A. Hailey and H. M. Babigian, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, iii (1973), 200-3; H. G. Pope, R. F. Champoux and J. E. Hudson, 'Eating disorders and socioeconomic class: anorexia nervosa and bulimia in nine communities', Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, clxxv (1987), 620-3; R. L. Pyle, 'The epidemiology of eating disorders', Pediatrician, xii (1983-85), 102-9.
44. H. W. Hoek, The incidence and prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in primary care', Psychological Medicine, xxi (1991), 455-60; Lucas et al. (1991), op. cit., 917-22; R. E. Kendell, D. J. Hall, A. Hailey and H. M. Babigian, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, iii (1973), 200-3; H. G. Pope, R. F. Champoux and J. E. Hudson, 'Eating disorders and socioeconomic class: anorexia nervosa and bulimia in nine communities', Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, clxxv (1987), 620-3; R. L. Pyle, 'The epidemiology of eating disorders', Pediatrician, xii (1983-85), 102-9.
45. H. W. Hoek, The incidence and prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in primary care', Psychological Medicine, xxi (1991), 455-60; Lucas et al. (1991), op. cit., 917-22; R. E. Kendell, D. J. Hall, A. Hailey and H. M. Babigian, 'The epidemiology of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, iii (1973), 200-3; H. G. Pope, R. F. Champoux and J. E. Hudson, 'Eating disorders and socioeconomic class: anorexia nervosa and bulimia in nine communities', Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, clxxv (1987), 620-3; R. L. Pyle, 'The epidemiology of eating disorders', Pediatrician, xii (1983-85), 102-9.
46. A. Whitaker et al. op. cit.; S. Gowers and J. B. McMahon, 'Social class and prognosis in anorexia nervosa', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 105-10.
47. A. Whitaker et al. op. cit.; S. Gowers and J. B. McMahon, 'Social class and prognosis in anorexia nervosa', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 105-10.
48. V. F. DiNicola, op. cit., 255; D. M. Garner and P. E. Garfinkel, 'Socio-cultural factors in the development of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, x (1980), 647-56; M. B. King and G. Mesey, 'Eating behavior of male racing jockeys', Psychological Medicine, xvii (1987), 249-53. D. M. Garner and L. W. Rosen, 'Eating disorders among athletes: research and recommendations', Journal of Applied Sports Science Research, v (1991), 100-7; L. M. Vincent, Competing with the Sylph: Dancers and the Pursuit of the Ideal Body Form (Kansas City: Andrews & McMeel, 1979).
49. V. F. DiNicola, op. cit., 255; D. M. Garner and P. E. Garfinkel, 'Socio-cultural factors in the development of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, x (1980), 647-56; M. B. King and G. Mesey, 'Eating behavior of male racing jockeys', Psychological Medicine, xvii (1987), 249-53. D. M. Garner and L. W. Rosen, 'Eating disorders among athletes: research and recommendations', Journal of Applied Sports Science Research, v (1991), 100-7; L. M. Vincent, Competing with the Sylph: Dancers and the Pursuit of the Ideal Body Form (Kansas City: Andrews & McMeel, 1979).
50. V. F. DiNicola, op. cit., 255; D. M. Garner and P. E. Garfinkel, 'Socio-cultural factors in the development of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, x (1980), 647-56; M. B. King and G. Mesey, 'Eating behavior of male racing jockeys', Psychological Medicine, xvii (1987), 249-53. D. M. Garner and L. W. Rosen, 'Eating disorders among athletes: research and recommendations', Journal of Applied Sports Science Research, v (1991), 100-7; L. M. Vincent, Competing with the Sylph: Dancers and the Pursuit of the Ideal Body Form (Kansas City: Andrews & McMeel, 1979).
51. V. F. DiNicola, op. cit., 255; D. M. Garner and P. E. Garfinkel, 'Socio-cultural factors in the development of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, x (1980), 647-56; M. B. King and G. Mesey, 'Eating behavior of male racing jockeys', Psychological Medicine, xvii (1987), 249-53. D. M. Garner and L. W. Rosen, 'Eating disorders among athletes: research and recommendations', Journal of Applied Sports Science Research, v (1991), 100-7; L. M. Vincent, Competing with the Sylph: Dancers and the Pursuit of the Ideal Body Form (Kansas City: Andrews & McMeel, 1979).
52. V. F. DiNicola, op. cit., 255; D. M. Garner and P. E. Garfinkel, 'Socio-cultural factors in the development of anorexia nervosa', Psychological Medicine, x (1980), 647-56; M. B. King and G. Mesey, 'Eating behavior of male racing jockeys', Psychological Medicine, xvii (1987), 249-53. D. M. Garner and L. W. Rosen, 'Eating disorders among athletes: research and recommendations', Journal of Applied Sports Science Research, v (1991), 100-7; L. M. Vincent, Competing with the Sylph: Dancers and the Pursuit of the Ideal Body Form (Kansas City: Andrews & McMeel, 1979).
53. S. Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); S. Bordo, Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images form Plato to O. J. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997). For other similar cultural approaches to anorexia nervosa, see K. Chemin, The Hungry Self: Women, Eating and Identity (New York: Harper-Perennial, 1994); M. Boskind-White, Bulimarexia: The Binge/Purge Cycle (New York: Norton, 1983); P. Fallen, M. A. Katzman and S. C. Wooley (eds), Feminist Perspectives on Eating Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); S. Orbach, Hunger Strike: An Anorectic's Struggle as a Metaphor for our Age (New York: Norton, 1986).
54. S. Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); S. Bordo, Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images form Plato to O. J. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997). For other similar cultural approaches to anorexia nervosa, see K. Chemin, The Hungry Self: Women, Eating and Identity (New York: Harper-Perennial, 1994); M. Boskind-White, Bulimarexia: The Binge/Purge Cycle (New York: Norton, 1983); P. Fallen, M. A. Katzman and S. C. Wooley (eds), Feminist Perspectives on Eating Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); S. Orbach, Hunger Strike: An Anorectic's Struggle as a Metaphor for our Age (New York: Norton, 1986).
55. S. Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); S. Bordo, Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images form Plato to O. J. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997). For other similar cultural approaches to anorexia nervosa, see K. Chemin, The Hungry Self: Women, Eating and Identity (New York: Harper-Perennial, 1994); M. Boskind-White, Bulimarexia: The Binge/Purge Cycle (New York: Norton, 1983); P. Fallen, M. A. Katzman and S. C. Wooley (eds), Feminist Perspectives on Eating Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); S. Orbach, Hunger Strike: An Anorectic's Struggle as a Metaphor for our Age (New York: Norton, 1986).
56. S. Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); S. Bordo, Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images form Plato to O. J. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997). For other similar cultural approaches to anorexia nervosa, see K. Chemin, The Hungry Self: Women, Eating and Identity (New York: Harper-Perennial, 1994); M. Boskind-White, Bulimarexia: The Binge/Purge Cycle (New York: Norton, 1983); P. Fallen, M. A. Katzman and S. C. Wooley (eds), Feminist Perspectives on Eating Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); S. Orbach, Hunger Strike: An Anorectic's Struggle as a Metaphor for our Age (New York: Norton, 1986).
57. S. Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); S. Bordo, Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images form Plato to O. J. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997). For other similar cultural approaches to anorexia nervosa, see K. Chemin, The Hungry Self: Women, Eating and Identity (New York: Harper-Perennial, 1994); M. Boskind-White, Bulimarexia: The Binge/Purge Cycle (New York: Norton, 1983); P. Fallen, M. A. Katzman and S. C. Wooley (eds), Feminist Perspectives on Eating Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); S. Orbach, Hunger Strike: An Anorectic's Struggle as a Metaphor for our Age (New York: Norton, 1986).
58. S. Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); S. Bordo, Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images form Plato to O. J. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997). For other similar cultural approaches to anorexia nervosa, see K. Chemin, The Hungry Self: Women, Eating and Identity (New York: Harper-Perennial, 1994); M. Boskind-White, Bulimarexia: The Binge/Purge Cycle (New York: Norton, 1983); P. Fallen, M. A. Katzman and S. C. Wooley (eds), Feminist Perspectives on Eating Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); S. Orbach, Hunger Strike: An Anorectic's Struggle as a Metaphor for our Age (New York: Norton, 1986).
59. Though the following discussion focuses upon the cultural situation of women, the same principles that will be outlined could apply to male cases of AN, adaptable to an individual's unique sociocultural and familial circumstances.
60. See C. W. Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987); R. Bell, Holy Anorexia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
61. See C. W. Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987); R. Bell, Holy Anorexia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
62. Bynum, op. cit.; R. Bell, op. cit.
63. Bynum, op. cit.; R. Bell, op. cit.
64. S. Portius, De Puella Germanica, Quae Fere Biennium Vixerat Sine Cibo, Potuque (Florence, 1551); J. A. Silverman, 'Richard Morton, 1637-1698. Limner of anorexia nervosa: his life and times', Journal of the American Medical Association) ccl (1983), 2830-2; J. A. Silverman, 'An eighteenth-century account of self-starvation in a male', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 431-3; J. A. Silverman, 'Robert Whytt, 1714-1766, eighteenth century limner of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, an essay', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 143-6; J. Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); M. Selvini Palazzoli, Self-starvation. From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1974) 4; J. A. Silverman, 'Louis-Victor Marce, 1828-1864: anorexia nervosa's forgotten man', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 833-5; A. Blewett and A. Bottero, 'L. V. Marce and the psychopathology of eating disorders', History of Psychiatry, vi (1995), 69-85.
65. S. Portius, De Puella Germanica, Quae Fere Biennium Vixerat Sine Cibo, Potuque (Florence, 1551); J. A. Silverman, 'Richard Morton, 1637-1698. Limner of anorexia nervosa: his life and times', Journal of the American Medical Association) ccl (1983), 2830-2; J. A. Silverman, 'An eighteenth-century account of self-starvation in a male', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 431-3; J. A. Silverman, 'Robert Whytt, 1714-1766, eighteenth century limner of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, an essay', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 143-6; J. Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); M. Selvini Palazzoli, Self-starvation. From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1974) 4; J. A. Silverman, 'Louis-Victor Marce, 1828-1864: anorexia nervosa's forgotten man', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 833-5; A. Blewett and A. Bottero, 'L. V. Marce and the psychopathology of eating disorders', History of Psychiatry, vi (1995), 69-85.
66. S. Portius, De Puella Germanica, Quae Fere Biennium Vixerat Sine Cibo, Potuque (Florence, 1551); J. A. Silverman, 'Richard Morton, 1637-1698. Limner of anorexia nervosa: his life and times', Journal of the American Medical Association) ccl (1983), 2830-2; J. A. Silverman, 'An eighteenth-century account of self-starvation in a male', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 431-3; J. A. Silverman, 'Robert Whytt, 1714-1766, eighteenth century limner of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, an essay', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 143-6; J. Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); M. Selvini Palazzoli, Self-starvation. From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1974) 4; J. A. Silverman, 'Louis-Victor Marce, 1828-1864: anorexia nervosa's forgotten man', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 833-5; A. Blewett and A. Bottero, 'L. V. Marce and the psychopathology of eating disorders', History of Psychiatry, vi (1995), 69-85.
67. S. Portius, De Puella Germanica, Quae Fere Biennium Vixerat Sine Cibo, Potuque (Florence, 1551); J. A. Silverman, 'Richard Morton, 1637-1698. Limner of anorexia nervosa: his life and times', Journal of the American Medical Association) ccl (1983), 2830-2; J. A. Silverman, 'An eighteenth-century account of self-starvation in a male', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 431-3; J. A. Silverman, 'Robert Whytt, 1714-1766, eighteenth century limner of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, an essay', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 143-6; J. Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); M. Selvini Palazzoli, Self-starvation. From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1974) 4; J. A. Silverman, 'Louis-Victor Marce, 1828-1864: anorexia nervosa's forgotten man', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 833-5; A. Blewett and A. Bottero, 'L. V. Marce and the psychopathology of eating disorders', History of Psychiatry, vi (1995), 69-85.
68. S. Portius, De Puella Germanica, Quae Fere Biennium Vixerat Sine Cibo, Potuque (Florence, 1551); J. A. Silverman, 'Richard Morton, 1637-1698. Limner of anorexia nervosa: his life and times', Journal of the American Medical Association) ccl (1983), 2830-2; J. A. Silverman, 'An eighteenth-century account of self-starvation in a male', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 431-3; J. A. Silverman, 'Robert Whytt, 1714-1766, eighteenth century limner of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, an essay', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 143-6; J. Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); M. Selvini Palazzoli, Self-starvation. From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1974) 4; J. A. Silverman, 'Louis-Victor Marce, 1828-1864: anorexia nervosa's forgotten man', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 833-5; A. Blewett and A. Bottero, 'L. V. Marce and the psychopathology of eating disorders', History of Psychiatry, vi (1995), 69-85.
69. S. Portius, De Puella Germanica, Quae Fere Biennium Vixerat Sine Cibo, Potuque (Florence, 1551); J. A. Silverman, 'Richard Morton, 1637-1698. Limner of anorexia nervosa: his life and times', Journal of the American Medical Association) ccl (1983), 2830-2; J. A. Silverman, 'An eighteenth-century account of self-starvation in a male', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 431-3; J. A. Silverman, 'Robert Whytt, 1714-1766, eighteenth century limner of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, an essay', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 143-6; J. Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); M. Selvini Palazzoli, Self-starvation. From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1974) 4; J. A. Silverman, 'Louis-Victor Marce, 1828-1864: anorexia nervosa's forgotten man', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 833-5; A. Blewett and A. Bottero, 'L. V. Marce and the psychopathology of eating disorders', History of Psychiatry, vi (1995), 69-85.
70. S. Portius, De Puella Germanica, Quae Fere Biennium Vixerat Sine Cibo, Potuque (Florence, 1551); J. A. Silverman, 'Richard Morton, 1637-1698. Limner of anorexia nervosa: his life and times', Journal of the American Medical Association) ccl (1983), 2830-2; J. A. Silverman, 'An eighteenth-century account of self-starvation in a male', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 431-3; J. A. Silverman, 'Robert Whytt, 1714-1766, eighteenth century limner of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, an essay', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 143-6; J. Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); M. Selvini Palazzoli, Self-starvation. From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1974) 4; J. A. Silverman, 'Louis-Victor Marce, 1828-1864: anorexia nervosa's forgotten man', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 833-5; A. Blewett and A. Bottero, 'L. V. Marce and the psychopathology of eating disorders', History of Psychiatry, vi (1995), 69-85.
71. S. Portius, De Puella Germanica, Quae Fere Biennium Vixerat Sine Cibo, Potuque (Florence, 1551); J. A. Silverman, 'Richard Morton, 1637-1698. Limner of anorexia nervosa: his life and times', Journal of the American Medical Association) ccl (1983), 2830-2; J. A. Silverman, 'An eighteenth-century account of self-starvation in a male', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 431-3; J. A. Silverman, 'Robert Whytt, 1714-1766, eighteenth century limner of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, an essay', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vi (1987), 143-6; J. Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); M. Selvini Palazzoli, Self-starvation. From Individual to Family Therapy in the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Jason Aronson, 1974) 4; J. A. Silverman, 'Louis-Victor Marce, 1828-1864: anorexia nervosa's forgotten man', Psychological Medicine, xix (1989), 833-5; A. Blewett and A. Bottero, 'L. V. Marce and the psychopathology of eating disorders', History of Psychiatry, vi (1995), 69-85.
72. For descriptions of several cases with depressive symptoms, see P. Skrabanek, 'Notes towards the history of anorexia nervosa', Janus, lxx (1983), 109-28. See also J. A. Silverman (1983), op. cit., and J. A. Silverman (1989), op. cit.
73. For descriptions of several cases with depressive symptoms, see P. Skrabanek, 'Notes towards the history of anorexia nervosa', Janus, lxx (1983), 109-28. See also J. A. Silverman (1983), op. cit., and J. A. Silverman (1989), op. cit.
74. For descriptions of several cases with depressive symptoms, see P. Skrabanek, 'Notes towards the history of anorexia nervosa', Janus, lxx (1983), 109-28. See also J. A. Silverman (1983), op. cit., and J. A. Silverman (1989), op. cit.
75. W. S. Chipley, 'Sitomania: its causes and treatment', American Journal of Insanity, xvi (1859), 4. For commentary, see Brumber, op. cit., 105-10.
76. W. S. Chipley, 'Sitomania: its causes and treatment', American Journal of Insanity, xvi (1859), 4. For commentary, see Brumber, op. cit., 105-10.
77. Brumberg, op. cit., 61-100.
78. Skrabanek, op. cit., 121.
79. T. Habermas, 'The psychiatric history of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: weight concerns and bulimic symptoms in early case reports', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 259-73; T. Habermas, 'Further evidence on early case descriptions of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', International Journal of Eating Disorders, xi (1992), 351-9.
80. T. Habermas, 'The psychiatric history of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: weight concerns and bulimic symptoms in early case reports', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 259-73; T. Habermas, 'Further evidence on early case descriptions of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa', International Journal of Eating Disorders, xi (1992), 351-9.
81. E. Shorter, The first great increase in anorexia nervosa', Journal of Social History, fall (1987), 69-96; T. Habermas, 'Historical continuities and discontinuities between religious and medical interpretations of extreme fasting', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 431-55.
82. E. Shorter, The first great increase in anorexia nervosa', Journal of Social History, fall (1987), 69-96; T. Habermas, 'Historical continuities and discontinuities between religious and medical interpretations of extreme fasting', History of Psychiatry, iii (1992), 431-55.
83. E. Shorter, [first great increase], op. cit., 88-90; Skrabanek, op. cit., 122-3.
84. E. Shorter, [first great increase], op. cit., 88-90; Skrabanek, op. cit., 122-3.
85. I. Loudon, 'The diseases called chlorosis', Psychological Medicine, xiv (1984), 27-36; J. Purvis, Women's History: Britain, 1850-1945 (London: UCL Press Limited, 1995); W. L. Parry-Jones, 'Archival exploration of anorexia nervosa', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 95-100; P. Jallard and J. Hooper (eds), Women from Birth to Death (Great Britain: The Harvester Press, 1986).
86. I. Loudon, 'The diseases called chlorosis', Psychological Medicine, xiv (1984), 27-36; J. Purvis, Women's History: Britain, 1850-1945 (London: UCL Press Limited, 1995); W. L. Parry-Jones, 'Archival exploration of anorexia nervosa', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 95-100; P. Jallard and J. Hooper (eds), Women from Birth to Death (Great Britain: The Harvester Press, 1986).
87. I. Loudon, 'The diseases called chlorosis', Psychological Medicine, xiv (1984), 27-36; J. Purvis, Women's History: Britain, 1850-1945 (London: UCL Press Limited, 1995); W. L. Parry-Jones, 'Archival exploration of anorexia nervosa', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 95-100; P. Jallard and J. Hooper (eds), Women from Birth to Death (Great Britain: The Harvester Press, 1986).
88. I. Loudon, 'The diseases called chlorosis', Psychological Medicine, xiv (1984), 27-36; J. Purvis, Women's History: Britain, 1850-1945 (London: UCL Press Limited, 1995); W. L. Parry-Jones, 'Archival exploration of anorexia nervosa', Journal of Psychiatric Research, xix (1985), 95-100; P. Jallard and J. Hooper (eds), Women from Birth to Death (Great Britain: The Harvester Press, 1986).
89. Loudon, op. cit., 30-1.
90. E. Shorter, A History of Women's Bodies (London: Allen Lane, 1983). See also J. J. Brumberg, 'Chlorotic girls, 1870-1920: a historical perspective on female adolescence', Child Development, liii (1982), 1468-77.
91. E. Shorter, A History of Women's Bodies (London: Allen Lane, 1983). See also J. J. Brumberg, 'Chlorotic girls, 1870-1920: a historical perspective on female adolescence', Child Development, liii (1982), 1468-77.
92. C. Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
93. J. Perkin, Victorian Women (London: J. Murray, 1993); D. Kunzle, Fashion and Fetishism: A Social History of the Corset, Tight-lacing, and other Forms of Body-sculpture in the West (Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield, 1982).
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141. H. Morgan and G. Russell, 'Value of family background and clinical features as predictors of long-term outcome in anorexia nervosa: four year follow-up study of 41 patients', Psychological Medicine, v (1975), 355-71; S. Theander, 'Anorexia nervosa: a psychiatric investigation of 44 female cases', Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, ccxiv (suppl) (1970), 1-194; D. P. Cantwell, S. Sturzenberger, J. Burroughs, B. Salkin and J. K. Green, 'Anorexia nervosa: an affective disorder?' Archives of General Psychiatry, xxxiv (1977), 1087-93; E. S. Gershon, J. R. Hamovit, J. L. Schreiber, E. E. Dibble, W. H. Kaye, J. I. Nurnberger, A. Andersen and M. H. Ebert, 'Anorexia nervosa and major affective disorders associated in families: a preliminary report', in S. B. Guze, F. T. Earls and J. E. Barrett (eds), Childhood Psychopathology and Development (New York: Raven Press, 1983); A. Winokur, V. March and J. Mendels, 'Primary affective disorder in relatives of patients with anorexia nervosa', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxx (1980), 695-8; J. I. Hudson, H. G. Pope Jr., J. M. Jonas and D. Yurgelin-Todd, 'Family history study of anorexia nervosa and bulimia", British Journal of Psychiatry, cxlii (1983), 133-8; T. M. Rivinus, J. Biederman, D. B. Hertzog, K. Kemper, G. P. Harper, J. S. Harmatz and S. Houseworth, 'Anorexia nervosa and affective disorders: a controlled family history study', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxli (1984), 1414-18.
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152. Keys, op. cit., 905-20; R. Rastam, 'Anorexia nervosa in 51 Swedish adolescents: premorbid problems and comorbidity', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, xxxi (1992), 819-29; E. Crumpton, E. B. Wine and E. J. Drueick, 'Starvation: stress or satisfaction?' Journal of the American Medical Association, cxcvi (1966), 394; E. J. Kollar and R. M. Atkinson, 'Responses of extremely obese patients to starvation', Psychosomatic Medicine, xxviii (1966), 277; M. L. Glucksman and J. Hirsch, 'The response of obese patients to weight reduction: a clinical evaluation of behavior', Psychosomatic Medicine, xxx (1968), 1.
153. A. Rothenberg, 'Eating disorder as a modern obsessive-compulsive syndrome', Psychiatry, xlix (1986), 45-53.
154. R. C. Casper, 'Integration of psychodynamic concepts into psychotherapy', in K. A. Halmi (ed.), Psychobiology and Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa (Washinton, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992); M. Selvini-Palazzoli, op. cit., 18-20.
155. R. C. Casper, 'Integration of psychodynamic concepts into psychotherapy', in K. A. Halmi (ed.), Psychobiology and Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa (Washinton, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992); M. Selvini-Palazzoli, op. cit., 18-20.
156. E. Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era (New York: The Free Press, 1992); E. Shorter, From the Mind into the Body (New York: The Free Press, 1994).
157. E. Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era (New York: The Free Press, 1992); E. Shorter, From the Mind into the Body (New York: The Free Press, 1994).
158. M. Selvini Palazzoli, 'Anorexia nervosa: a syndrome of the affluent society', Journal of Strategic & Systemic Therapies, iv (1985), 12-16.
159. See note 15
160. See note 18.
161. Shorter develops this idea in both From the Mind into the Body and in 'The first great increase in anorexia nervosa', 81.
162. See note 21.
163. J. Wasco, Hollywood in the Information Age: Beyond the Silver Screen (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1994).
164. Vandereycken and van Deth, op. cit., 904-5.
165. S. Minuchin, B. L. Rosman and L. Baker, Psychosomatic Families: Anorexia Nervosa in Context (Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978).
166. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
167. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
168. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
169. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
170. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
171. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
172. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
173. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
174. For a summary of familial theories of AN, see Garfinkel and Garner, op. cit., 164-87. See also E. Kog and W. Vandereycken, 'Family interaction in eating disordered patients and normal controls', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 11-23; R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer and P. D. Marshall, 'Eating-disordered patients remember their parents: a study using the parental-bonding instrument', International Journal of Eating Disorders, vii (1988), 101-6; M. J. Goldstein, 'Family factors associated with schizophrenia and anorexia nervosa', Journal of Youth and Adolescence, x (1981), 385-405; G. Waller, R. Calam and P. Slade, 'Eating disorders and family interaction', British Journal of Clinical Psychology, xxviii (1989), 285-6; P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, J. Rose, P. L. Darby, J. S. Brandes, J. O'Hanlon and N. Walsh, 'A comparison of characteristics in families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls', Psychological Medicine, xiii (1983), 821-8; S. L. Stern, K. N. Dixon, D. Jones, M. Lake, E. Nemzer and R. Sansone, 'Family environment in anorexia nervosa and bulimia', International Journal of Eating Disorders, viii (1989), 25-31; L. L. Humphrey, 'Observed family interactions among subtypes of eating disorders using structural analysis of social behavior', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, lvii (1989), 206-14; J. Yager, 'Family issues in the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa', Psychosomatic Medicine, xliv (1982), 43-60.
175. A. Cherlin, 'Changing family and household: contemporary lessons from historical research', Annual Review of Sociology, ix (1983), 51-66.
176. J. Stacey, Brave New Families: Stories of Domestic Upheaval in late Twentieth-century America (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
177. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part 2 (Washington, DC, 1975); U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1995 (Washington, DC, 1995); Devine, op. cit.; Hilowitz, op. cit.
178. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part 2 (Washington, DC, 1975); U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1995 (Washington, DC, 1995); Devine, op. cit.; Hilowitz, op. cit.
179. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part 2 (Washington, DC, 1975); U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1995 (Washington, DC, 1995); Devine, op. cit.; Hilowitz, op. cit.
180. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part 2 (Washington, DC, 1975); U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1995 (Washington, DC, 1995); Devine, op. cit.; Hilowitz, op. cit.
181. DiNicola, op. cit., 261-2; L. Mynors-Wallis, J. Treasure and D. Chee, 'Life events and anorexia nervosa: differences between early and late onset cases', International Journal of Eating Disorders, xi (1992), 369-75; R. Kalucy, A. H. Crisp and B. Harding, 'A survey of 56 families with anorexia nervosa', British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1 (1977), 381-95.
182. DiNicola, op. cit., 261-2; L. Mynors-Wallis, J. Treasure and D. Chee, 'Life events and anorexia nervosa: differences between early and late onset cases', International Journal of Eating Disorders, xi (1992), 369-75; R. Kalucy, A. H. Crisp and B. Harding, 'A survey of 56 families with anorexia nervosa', British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1 (1977), 381-95.
183. DiNicola, op. cit., 261-2; L. Mynors-Wallis, J. Treasure and D. Chee, 'Life events and anorexia nervosa: differences between early and late onset cases', International Journal of Eating Disorders, xi (1992), 369-75; R. Kalucy, A. H. Crisp and B. Harding, 'A survey of 56 families with anorexia nervosa', British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1 (1977), 381-95.
184. H. Bruch, Eating Disorders: Obesity, Anorexia Nervosa, and the Person Within (New York: Basic Books, 1973). See also A. H. Crisp, 'Some aspects of the evolution, presentation, and follow-up of anorexia nervosa', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, lviii (1965), 814-20.
185. H. Bruch, Eating Disorders: Obesity, Anorexia Nervosa, and the Person Within (New York: Basic Books, 1973). See also A. H. Crisp, 'Some aspects of the evolution, presentation, and follow-up of anorexia nervosa', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, lviii (1965), 814-20.
186. A. S. Onyehalu, 'Identity crisis in adolescence', Adolescence, xvi (1981) 629-32; E. H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton Co., 1959); E. H. Erikson, 'Identity and the life cycle', Psychological Issues, Vol. 1, (1968); H. S. Bernard, 'Identity formation during late adolescence: a review of some empirical findings', Adolescence, xvi (1981), 349-58.
187. A. S. Onyehalu, 'Identity crisis in adolescence', Adolescence, xvi (1981) 629-32; E. H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton Co., 1959); E. H. Erikson, 'Identity and the life cycle', Psychological Issues, Vol. 1, (1968); H. S. Bernard, 'Identity formation during late adolescence: a review of some empirical findings', Adolescence, xvi (1981), 349-58.
188. A. S. Onyehalu, 'Identity crisis in adolescence', Adolescence, xvi (1981) 629-32; E. H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton Co., 1959); E. H. Erikson, 'Identity and the life cycle', Psychological Issues, Vol. 1, (1968); H. S. Bernard, 'Identity formation during late adolescence: a review of some empirical findings', Adolescence, xvi (1981), 349-58.
189. A. S. Onyehalu, 'Identity crisis in adolescence', Adolescence, xvi (1981) 629-32; E. H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton Co., 1959); E. H. Erikson, 'Identity and the life cycle', Psychological Issues, Vol. 1, (1968); H. S. Bernard, 'Identity formation during late adolescence: a review of some empirical findings', Adolescence, xvi (1981), 349-58.
190. R. Gordon, Anorexia and Bulimia: Anatomy of a Social Epidemic (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1990).
191. Brumberg emphasizes the masking of eating disorder pathology in diet-obsessed societies in J. J. Brumberg, The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls (New York: Random House, 1997).
192. Minuchin, op. cit., 1-138.
193. Bruch (1973), op. cit, 44-66. There is some support that anorexics are unable to identify and respond accurately to their emotional states. See, for example M. P. Bourke, G. J. Taylor, J. D. A. Parker and R. M. Bagby, 'Alexithymia in women with anorexia nervosa - a preliminary investigation', British Journal of Psychiatry, clxi (1992), 240-3.
194. Bruch (1973), op. cit, 44-66. There is some support that anorexics are unable to identify and respond accurately to their emotional states. See, for example M. P. Bourke, G. J. Taylor, J. D. A. Parker and R. M. Bagby, 'Alexithymia in women with anorexia nervosa - a preliminary investigation', British Journal of Psychiatry, clxi (1992), 240-3.
195. Bruch (1973), op. cit., 66-86. For discussion of sexual abuse as an antecedent to AN, see R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer, A. Dignon, D. A. Chaloner and K. Howells, 'Childhood sexual experiences with adults reported by women with eating disorders: an extended series', British Journal of Psychiatry, clvi (1990), 699-703; R. L. Palmer and R. Oppenheimer, 'Childhood sexual experiences with adults: a comparison of women with eating disorders and those with other diagnoses', International Journal of Eating Disorders, xii (1992), 359-64.
196. Bruch (1973), op. cit., 66-86. For discussion of sexual abuse as an antecedent to AN, see R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer, A. Dignon, D. A. Chaloner and K. Howells, 'Childhood sexual experiences with adults reported by women with eating disorders: an extended series', British Journal of Psychiatry, clvi (1990), 699-703; R. L. Palmer and R. Oppenheimer, 'Childhood sexual experiences with adults: a comparison of women with eating disorders and those with other diagnoses', International Journal of Eating Disorders, xii (1992), 359-64.
197. Bruch (1973), op. cit., 66-86. For discussion of sexual abuse as an antecedent to AN, see R. L. Palmer, R. Oppenheimer, A. Dignon, D. A. Chaloner and K. Howells, 'Childhood sexual experiences with adults reported by women with eating disorders: an extended series', British Journal of Psychiatry, clvi (1990), 699-703; R. L. Palmer and R. Oppenheimer, 'Childhood sexual experiences with adults: a comparison of women with eating disorders and those with other diagnoses', International Journal of Eating Disorders, xii (1992), 359-64.