Dental pathology in ancient mesopotamia

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 73, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 197-207

  Pangas, Julio César ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; HISTORY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; HUMAN; TOOTH DISEASE;

GREEK WORLD; HISTORY OF DENTISTRY; HISTORY, ANCIENT; HUMANS; TOOTH DISEASES;

EID: 0033142001     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.1999.0090     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. See Franz Köcher, Die babylonisch-assyrische Medizin in Texten und Untersuchungen (= BAM), 6 vols. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1963-79); Reginald C. Thompson, Assyrian Medical Texts, from the Originals in the British Museum (= AMT) (1923; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1982).
2. See Franz Köcher, Die babylonisch-assyrische Medizin in Texten und Untersuchungen (= BAM), 6 vols. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1963-79); Reginald C. Thompson, Assyrian Medical Texts, from the Originals in the British Museum (= AMT) (1923; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1982).
3. A good introduction to the history of Babylonian medicine is Aldo L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), chap. 6. See also Robert Biggs, "Medicine in Ancient Mesopotamia," Hist. Sci., 1969, 8: 94-105; and Dietlinde Goltz, Studien zur Altorientalischen und griechischen Heilkunde, Supplement 16 of Sudhoffs Archiv (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1974), 1-95.
4. A good introduction to the history of Babylonian medicine is Aldo L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), chap. 6. See also Robert Biggs, "Medicine in Ancient Mesopotamia," Hist. Sci., 1969, 8: 94-105; and Dietlinde Goltz, Studien zur Altorientalischen und griechischen Heilkunde, Supplement 16 of Sudhoffs Archiv (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1974), 1-95.
5. A good introduction to the history of Babylonian medicine is Aldo L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), chap. 6. See also Robert Biggs, "Medicine in Ancient Mesopotamia," Hist. Sci., 1969, 8: 94-105; and Dietlinde Goltz, Studien zur Altorientalischen und griechischen Heilkunde, Supplement 16 of Sudhoffs Archiv (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1974), 1-95.
6. For šinnu, see Wolfram von Soden, Akkadisches Handwörterbuch (= Ahw) (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1965-81), p. 1243: "I. . . 'Zahn'. . . A als Körperteile. . . 1) v Menschen."
7. Erle Leichty, The Omen Series "Šumma Izbu" (= Š.I.), Texts from Cuneiform Sources, vol. 4 (Locust Valley, N.Y.: J. J. Augustin, 1970). The omen series Šumma Izbu has been preserved in the library of King Assurbanipal (seventh century B.C.), but its tablets date from the Old Babylonian period and come from different archaeological sites: from Boghazkoi (in Akkadian, Hittite, and Hurrian), from Ugarit (in Akkadian and Ugaritic), and from Kuyunjik, Assur, Nimrud, Sultantepe, Susa, Babylon, Borsippa, and Uruk.
8. The logical relationship between the protasis (the first part of the sentence) and the apodosis (where the prognosis is established) is never made clear, but in many cases some kind of link can be presumed. This interesting problem is discussed in Jean Bottéro, "Symptômes, signes et écritures en Mésopotamie ancienne," in Jean P. Vernant et al., Divination et rationalité (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1974), pp. 70-197.
9. For tigrillu see Ahw, p. 1356: "eine Frügeburt mit Bart usw"; references to this anomaly are very scarce. Nergal was the god of the infernal regions.
10. René Labat, Traité akkadien de diagnostics et pronostics médicaux (= TDP), 2 vols. (Paris: Academie Internationale d'Histoire des Sciences, 1951). Most of these tablets come from Assurbanipal's library. The most ancient canonical text comes from the Babylonian King Nabuapaliddin (721-710 B.C.); it was most likely composed ca. 1500 B.C.
11. See Donald J. Ortner and Walter Putschar, "Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains," Smithsonian Contrib. Anthrop., 1981, 28:447.
12. Adam Falkenstein, ed., Literarische Keilschrifttexte aus Uruk (1931; reprint, Hildesheim: Olms, 1979), 35.17.
13. On kaparu see Ahw, p. 442: "I. . . 'Abschalen, abwischen.'"
14. Karen Hojgaard, "Dilmun's Ancient Teeth," Dilmun,J. Bahrain Hist. Archaeol. Soc., 1983, 2: 11-13; Judith Littleton and Bruno Fröhlich, "An Analysis of Dental Pathology and Diet in Historic Bahrain," Paléorient, 1989, 15 (2): 59-75.
15. Karen Hojgaard, "Dilmun's Ancient Teeth," Dilmun,J. Bahrain Hist. Archaeol. Soc., 1983, 2: 11-13; Judith Littleton and Bruno Fröhlich, "An Analysis of Dental Pathology and Diet in Historic Bahrain," Paléorient, 1989, 15 (2): 59-75.
16. On the expression "hand of," meaning the action of either a divine or a demonic power as the cause of a disease, see Edith K. Ritter, "Magical Expert (= ašipu) and Physician (= asû): Notes on Two Complementary Professions in Babylonian Medicine," Assyriol. Stud., 1965, 16: 299-321, on p. 299. The god Sin, one of the most important divinities in the Assyro-Babylonian pantheon, was the moon god.
17. Franz Köcher and Aldo L. Oppenheim, "The Old Babylonian Omen Text VAT 7525," Archiv für Orientforschung, 1957-58, 18:62-77; quotation on p. 62. The Old Babylonian period was ca. 1950-1530 B.C..
18. For "amanu-salt" see Ahw, p. 40: "ein rötliches Salz." For "juniper" see burašu, in Ahw, p. 139: "(phönikischer) Wacholder."
19. For "amanu-salt" see Ahw, p. 40: "ein rötliches Salz." For "juniper" see burašu, in Ahw, p. 139: "(phönikischer) Wacholder."
20. On the "codes" in general, see Jean Bottéro, "L'Ordalie en Mésopotamie ancienne," Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, 3d ser., 1981, 11 (4): 1005-67. On the Code of Hammurabi (= CH), see André Finet, Le code de Hammurabi (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1973). Hammurabi (1728-1686 B.C.) lived during the Old Babylonian period.
21. On the "codes" in general, see Jean Bottéro, "L'Ordalie en Mésopotamie ancienne," Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, 3d ser., 1981, 11 (4): 1005-67. On the Code of Hammurabi (= CH), see André Finet, Le code de Hammurabi (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1973). Hammurabi (1728-1686 B.C.) lived during the Old Babylonian period.
22. On the different social classes in ancient Mesopotamia, and especially on the question of the muškenum, see Wolfram von Soden, "Muškenum und die Mawali des frühen Islam," Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und verwandte Gebiete, 1964, 56: 133-41; Ernest Speiser, "The Muškenum," Orientalia, 1958, 27: 19-28; Howard Wohl, "Towards a Definition of Muškenum," Anc. Near Eastern Texts and Stud., 1968, 1 (1): 5-10.
23. On the different social classes in ancient Mesopotamia, and especially on the question of the muškenum, see Wolfram von Soden, "Muškenum und die Mawali des frühen Islam," Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und verwandte Gebiete, 1964, 56: 133-41; Ernest Speiser, "The Muškenum," Orientalia, 1958, 27: 19-28; Howard Wohl, "Towards a Definition of Muškenum," Anc. Near Eastern Texts and Stud., 1968, 1 (1): 5-10.
24. On the different social classes in ancient Mesopotamia, and especially on the question of the muškenum, see Wolfram von Soden, "Muškenum und die Mawali des frühen Islam," Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und verwandte Gebiete, 1964, 56: 133-41; Ernest Speiser, "The Muškenum," Orientalia, 1958, 27: 19-28; Howard Wohl, "Towards a Definition of Muškenum," Anc. Near Eastern Texts and Stud., 1968, 1 (1): 5-10.
25. On the Laws of Ešnunna (= LE), see Emanuel Bouzon, As Leis de Ešnunna (Petropolis: Vozes, 1981). These laws (1825-1787 B.C.) are also from the Old Babylonian period.
26. Simo Parpola, Letters from Assyrian Scholars to the Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal, Alter Orient und Altes Testament, vol. 5, part 1 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1970), § 250.
27. Anu was one of the most important gods of ancient Mesopotamia, the god of the sky.
28. Šamaš (Sumerian Utu) was the god of the sun.
29. Ea (Sumerian Enki) was the god of wisdom and craftmanship.
30. This is information given to the healer.
31. Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, part 107 (London: The Trustees, 1903), plate 50 - quoted, for instance, by André Dussau, "Le 'ver' de la dent en Mésopotamie et dans l'Égypte ancienne," Le Chirurgien-dentiste de France, 1987, 403: 25-30, on p. 28. On the elements of the prescription, see billatu in Ahw, p. 125: "1) 'Mischbier'"; buqlu, in ibid., p. 139: "Malz."
32. Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, part 107 (London: The Trustees, 1903), plate 50 - quoted, for instance, by André Dussau, "Le 'ver' de la dent en Mésopotamie et dans l'Égypte ancienne," Le Chirurgien-dentiste de France, 1987, 403: 25-30, on p. 28. On the elements of the prescription, see billatu in Ahw, p. 125: "1) 'Mischbier'"; buqlu, in ibid., p. 139: "Malz."
33. Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, part 107 (London: The Trustees, 1903), plate 50 - quoted, for instance, by André Dussau, "Le 'ver' de la dent en Mésopotamie et dans l'Égypte ancienne," Le Chirurgien-dentiste de France, 1987, 403: 25-30, on p. 28. On the elements of the prescription, see billatu in Ahw, p. 125: "1) 'Mischbier'"; buqlu, in ibid., p. 139: "Malz."
34. Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, part 107 (London: The Trustees, 1903), plate 50 - quoted, for instance, by André Dussau, "Le 'ver' de la dent en Mésopotamie et dans l'Égypte ancienne," Le Chirurgien-dentiste de France, 1987, 403: 25-30, on p. 28. On the elements of the prescription, see billatu in Ahw, p. 125: "1) 'Mischbier'"; buqlu, in ibid., p. 139: "Malz."
35. On the "therapeutical vademecum" see, e.g., Köcher, Die babylonisch-assyrische Medizin (n. 1), 1: 1.
36. For acacia, see ašagu in Ahw, p. 77: "ein Dornstrauch, Kameldorn [not a definitive translation]."
37. Georges Dossin, "Les archives économiques du palais de Mari," Syria, 1939, 20: 102-3. The city of Mari flourished between 2500 and 1800 B.C.
38. Wilhelmus C. Delsman et al., Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments, vol. 2, Religiöse Texte, fascicle 2 (Gütersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1987), p. 271.
39. For akalu see Ahw, pp. 26-27: "G . . . 7) 'fressen' . . . a) v 'Krankheitsschmerzen.'"
40. For sahalu see Ahw, p. 1003: "'durchbohren'. . . 2 . . . c) v Zahnschmerz." This word is also used to explain die action of a weapon that runs through something.
41. Assyro-Babylonian medical texts were ordered in "series" and "subseries" (or chapters) following the common principle a capite ad calcem. Very probably the compilation was made in the time of King Assurbanipal (seventh century B.C.): see Köcher, Die babylonisch-assyrische Medizin (n. 1), 6: xviii. We do not know what kind of disease is meant by this expression ("If a man, his teeth are sick"); I can find no support for Köcher's translation "Wenn ein Mensch Zahnschmerzen hat" (ibid.)
42. The god Marduk, the god of Babylonia, was in the epoch of King Hammurabi the most important god in the Babylonian pantheon.
43. On the different therapeutic activities of the ancient healers, see Ritter, "Magical Expert" (n. 12); Goltz, Studien (n. 2).
44. On the different therapeutic activities of the ancient healers, see Ritter, "Magical Expert" (n. 12); Goltz, Studien (n. 2).
45. On the herb U2 UD, see Reginald C. Thompson, A Dictionary of Assyrian Botany (London: British Academy, 1949), pp. 292-93. On bušanu (= U2 HAB) as "wild grape" see John V. Kinnier Wilson, "Leprosy in Ancient Mesopotamia," Revue d 'Assyriologie, 1966, 60: 47-58; and see Ahw, p. 143: "2) eine Pflanze." On na4 gabu see Ahw, p. 272: "Alaun."
46. On the herb U2 UD, see Reginald C. Thompson, A Dictionary of Assyrian Botany (London: British Academy, 1949), pp. 292-93. On bušanu (= U2 HAB) as "wild grape" see John V. Kinnier Wilson, "Leprosy in Ancient Mesopotamia," Revue d 'Assyriologie, 1966, 60: 47-58; and see Ahw, p. 143: "2) eine Pflanze." On na4 gabu see Ahw, p. 272: "Alaun."
47. On the herb U2 UD, see Reginald C. Thompson, A Dictionary of Assyrian Botany (London: British Academy, 1949), pp. 292-93. On bušanu (= U2 HAB) as "wild grape" see John V. Kinnier Wilson, "Leprosy in Ancient Mesopotamia," Revue d 'Assyriologie, 1966, 60: 47-58; and see Ahw, p. 143: "2) eine Pflanze." On na4 gabu see Ahw, p. 272: "Alaun."
48. On the herb U2 UD, see Reginald C. Thompson, A Dictionary of Assyrian Botany (London: British Academy, 1949), pp. 292-93. On bušanu (= U2 HAB) as "wild grape" see John V. Kinnier Wilson, "Leprosy in Ancient Mesopotamia," Revue d 'Assyriologie, 1966, 60: 47-58; and see Ahw, p. 143: "2) eine Pflanze." On na4 gabu see Ahw, p. 272: "Alaun."
49. On rišutu-disease see Ahw, p. 989: "Rötung, eine Hautkrankheit." Among the texts that cite it see TDP 76.52; BAM 409.20; 33.19; 3.2.3; 159.5.7.10; etc.
50. On rišutu-disease see Ahw, p. 989: "Rötung, eine Hautkrankheit." Among the texts that cite it see TDP 76.52; BAM 409.20; 33.19; 3.2.3; 159.5.7.10; etc.
51. On rišutu-disease see Ahw, p. 989: "Rötung, eine Hautkrankheit." Among the texts that cite it see TDP 76.52; BAM 409.20; 33.19; 3.2.3; 159.5.7.10; etc.
52. Ted A. Rathbun, "Skeletal Pathology from the Paleolithic through the Metal Ages in Iran and Iraq," in Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, ed. Mark Cohen and George Armelagos (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1984), pp. 137-67; Hojgaard, "Dilmun's Ancient Teeth" (n. 11); Littleton and Fröhlich, "Analysis of Dental Pathology" (n. 11).
53. Ted A. Rathbun, "Skeletal Pathology from the Paleolithic through the Metal Ages in Iran and Iraq," in Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, ed. Mark Cohen and George Armelagos (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1984), pp. 137-67; Hojgaard, "Dilmun's Ancient Teeth" (n. 11); Littleton and Fröhlich, "Analysis of Dental Pathology" (n. 11).
54. Ted A. Rathbun, "Skeletal Pathology from the Paleolithic through the Metal Ages in Iran and Iraq," in Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, ed. Mark Cohen and George Armelagos (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1984), pp. 137-67; Hojgaard, "Dilmun's Ancient Teeth" (n. 11); Littleton and Fröhlich, "Analysis of Dental Pathology" (n. 11).
55. For šahahu see Ahw, p. 1128: "sich lockern, ausfällen, schwinden."
56. Cf. AMT 30.12.1.1.
57. Wilson, "Leprosy" (n. 33). Cf. Ahw, p. 143: "übler Geruch; eine Krankheit der Nase."
58. Wilson, "Leprosy" (n. 33). Cf. Ahw, p. 143: "übler Geruch; eine Krankheit der Nase."
59. See Ahw, p. 94: "schlecht, stinkend sein."
60. For "seize" as a means of describing the action of diseases on humans, see Ritter, "Magical Expert" (n. 12); Goltz, Studien (n. 2).
61. For "seize" as a means of describing the action of diseases on humans, see Ritter, "Magical Expert" (n. 12); Goltz, Studien (n. 2).
62. For the "lists of diseases" see Albrecht Goetze, "An Incantation against Diseases," J. Cuneiform Stud., 1954/55, 9:9-16.
63. Wilson, "Leprosy" (n. 33).
64. Ignace J. Gelb et al., eds., Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), vol. B, p. 351 B.
65. Goetze, "Incantation against Diseases" (n. 41), p. 13.
66. John V. Kinnier Wilson, "Organic Diseases of Ancient Mesopotamia," in Diseases in Antiquity: A Survey of the Diseases, Injuries, and Surgery of Early Populations, eds. Don Brothwell and A. T. Sandison (Springfield, 111.: C.C. Thomas, 1967), p. 205.
67. Wilson, "Leprosy" (n. 33).
68. Jeffrey Tigay, "On Moses' Speech Difficulty," Bull. Amer. Sch. Orient. Res., 1978, 231: 57-67.
69. In lexicographical text 2 R 44, n.2,1 I 13 ff. (Ahw, p. 281 : "Aussatz, Raude"), bušanu is identified with garabu, and this disease is said to be the same as saharšubbû (Ahw, p. 1005: "Staubbedeckung, Aussatz"); thus, bušanu is thought to be identical to saharšubbû. Now, modern philology had (erroneously) decided that saharšubbû was the Akkadian word for "leprosy" - and therefore, bušanu had to be "leprosy."
70. In lexicographical text 2 R 44, n.2,1 I 13 ff. (Ahw, p. 281 : "Aussatz, Raude"), bušanu is identified with garabu, and this disease is said to be the same as saharšubbû (Ahw, p. 1005: "Staubbedeckung, Aussatz"); thus, bušanu is thought to be identical to saharšubbû. Now, modern philology had (erroneously) decided that saharšubbû was the Akkadian word for "leprosy" - and therefore, bušanu had to be "leprosy."