Neural sites and pathways regulating food intake in birds: A comparative analysis to mammalian systems

Journal of Experimental Zoology

Volumn 283, Issue 4-5, 1999, Pages 348-364

  Kuenzel, Wayne J ^a   Beck, Mary M ^b   Teruyama, Ryoichi ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA LINCOLN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AVES; GALLIFORMES; MAMMALIA; TERMINALIS; VERTEBRATA;

ANIMAL; ANTERIOR HYPOTHALAMUS; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BIRD; BODY WEIGHT; COMPARATIVE STUDY; EATING; HOMEOSTASIS; HYPOTHALAMUS; HYPOTHALAMUS VENTROMEDIAL NUCLEUS; LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS; MAMMAL; NERVE TRACT; PHYSIOLOGY; RAT; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; BIRDS; BODY WEIGHT; EATING; HOMEOSTASIS; HYPOTHALAMIC AREA, LATERAL; HYPOTHALAMUS; MAMMALS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEURAL PATHWAYS; PARAVENTRICULAR HYPOTHALAMIC NUCLEUS; RATS; VENTROMEDIAL HYPOTHALAMIC NUCLEUS;

EID: 0033120846     PISSN: 0022104X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990301/01)283:4/5<348::AID-JEZ5>3.0.CO;2-5     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. Anand B, Brobeck JR. 1951. Hypothalamic control of food intake in rats and cats. Yale J Biol Med 24:123-146.
2. Arends JJA, Dubbeldam JL. 1982. Exteroceptive and proprioceptive afferents of the trigeminal and facial nuclei of the mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L. J Comp Neurol 209:313-329.
3. Arends JJA, Wild JM, Zeigler HP. 1988. Projections of the nucleus of the tractus solitarius in the pigeon, Columba livia. J Comp Neurol 278:405-429.
4. Assimacopoulos-Jeannet F, Jeanrenaud B. 1976. The hormonal and metabolic basis of experimental obesity. Clin Endocrinol Metab 5:337-365.
5. Barbato GF, Cherry JA, Siegel PB, Van Krey HP. 1980. Quantitative analysis of the feeding behavior of four populations of chickens. Physiol Behav 25:885-891.
6. Bauche R, Sabourault D, Giudicelli Y, Nordmann J, Nordmann R. 1983. Inhibition in vitro of acyl-CoA-dehydrogenases by 2-mercaptoacetate in rat liver mitochondria. Biochem J 215:457-464.
7. Bauman DE, Currie WB. 1980. Partitioning of nutrients during pregnancy and lactation: a review of mechanisms involving homeostasis and homeorhesis. J Dairy Sci 63: 1514-1529.
8. Beinfeld MC, Palkovits M. 1981. Distribution of cholecystokinin (CCK) in the hypothalamus and limbic system of the rat. Neuropeptides 2:123-129.
9. Berk ML. 1987. Projections of the lateral hypothalamus and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the dorsal vagal complex in the pigeon. J Comp Neurol 260:140-156.
10. Berk ML, Butler AB. 1981. Efferent projections of the medial preoptic nucleus and medial hypothalamus in the pigeon. J Comp Neurol 203:379-399.
11. Berk ML, Smith SE. 1994. Local and commissural neuropeptide-containing projections of the nucleus of the solitary tract to the dorsal vagal complex in the pigeon. J Comp Neurol 347:369-396.
12. Berkhoudt H. 1980. The morphology and distribution of cutaneous mechanoreceptors (Herbst and Grandry corpuscles) in bill and tongue of the mallard. Anus platyrhynchos L. Neth J Zool 30:1-34.
13. Berkhoudt H, Klein BG, Zeigler HP. 1982. Afferents to the trigeminal and facial nuclei in pigeon, Columba livia L. central connections of jaw motor-neurons. J Comp Neurol 209:301-312.
14. Blähser S, Oksche A, Farner DS. 1986. Projection of fibers immunoreactive to an antiserum against godadoliberin (LHRH) into the pineal stalk of the white-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii. Cell Tissue Res 244:193-196.
15. Bogdanove EM. 1957. Selectivity of the effects of hypothalamic lesions on pituitary trophic hormone secretion in the rat. Endocrinology 60:689-697.
16. Bons N, Kerdelhue B, Assenmacher I. 1978. Immunocytochemical identification of an LHRH-producing system originating in the preoptic nucleus of the duck. Cell Tissue Res 188:99-106.
17. Bray GA. 1991. Obesity, a disorder of nutrient partitioning: the MONA LISA hypothesis. J Nutr 121:1146-1162.
18. Bray GA, York DA. 1979. Hypothalamic and genetic obesity in experimental animals: an automatic and endocrine hypothesis. Physiol Rev 59:719-801.
19. Breazile JE, Hartwig HG. 1989. Central nervous system. In: King AS, McLelland J, editors. Form and function in birds. London: Academic Press. vol. 5. p 485-566.
20. Bugbee NM. 1979. The basal ganglia-tectal pathway: its role in visually guided behavior in the pigeon (Columba livia). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland.
21. Calingasan NY, Ritter S. 1993. Lateral parabrachial subnucleus lesions abolish feeding induced by mercaptoacetate but not by 2-deoxy-D-glucose. Am J Physiol 265:R1168-R1178.
22. Campfield LA, Smith FJ, Burn P. 1996. The OB protein (leptin) pathway: a link between adipose tissue mass and central neural networks. Horm Metab Res 28:619-632.
23. Campfield LA, Smith FJ, Guisez Y, Devos R, Burn P. 1995. Recombinant mouse OB protein: evidence for a peripheral signal linking adiposity and central neural networks. Science 269:546-549.
24. Chronwall BM, DiMaggio DA, Massari VJ, Pickel VM, Ruggiero DA, O'Donohue TL. 1985. The anatomy of neuropeptide Y-containing neurons in rat brain. Neuroscience 15:1159-1181.
25. Clark JT, Kalra PS, Crowley WR, Kalra SP. 1984. Neuropeptide Y and human pancreatic polypeptide stimulate feeding behavior in rats. Endocrinology 115:427-429.
26. Collier BD, Gault FP. 1969. Aphagia and adipsia following lesions of the amygdala. Psychonomic Sci 17:41-42.
27. Contreras RJ, Foz E, Drugovich ML. 1982. Area postrema lesions produce feeding deficits in the rat: effects of preoperative dieting and 2-deoxy-D-glucose. Physiol Behav 29:875-884.
28. Dacey DM, Grossman SP. 1977. Aphagia, adipsia, and sensory-motor deficits produced by amygdala lesions: a function of extra-amygdaloid damage. Physiol Behav 19: 389-395.
29. Dagnault A, Richard D. 1997. Involvement of the medial preoptic area in the anorectic action of estrogens. Am J Physiol 272:R311-R317.
30. Denbow DM, Sheppard BJ. 1993. Food and water intake responses of the domestic fowl to norepinephrine infusion at circumscribed neural sites. Brain Res Bull 31:121-128.
31. Dubbeldam JL. 1980. Studies on the somatotopy of the trigeminal system in the mallard. Anas platyrhynchos L. II. Morphology of the principle sensory nucleus. J Comp Neurol 191:557-571.
32. Dubbeldam JL. 1984 Afferent connections of nervus facialis and nervus glossopharyngeus in the pigeon, Columba livia and their role in feeding behavior. Brain Behav Evol 24:47-57.
33. Dubbeldam JL, Brauch CSM, Don A. 1981. Studies on the somatotopy of the trigeminal system in the mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L. III. Afferents and organization of the nucleus basalis. J Comp Neurol 196:391-405.
34. Dubbeldam JL, Veenman CL. 1978. Studies on the somatotopy of the trigeminal system in the mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L. I. The ganglion trigeminale. Neth J Zool 28:150-160.
35. Dubbeldam JL, Wijsman JPM. 1975. The ascending projections of the principle sensory trigeminal nucleus in the mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L. Acta Morphol Neerl Scand 13(Abstr):230-231.
36. Edwards GL, Ladenheim EE, Ritter RC. 1986. Dorsal hindbrain participation in cholecystokinin-induced satiety. Am J Physiol 251:R971-R977.
37. Edwards GL, White BD, He B, Dean RG, Martin RJ. 1997. Elevated hypothalamic neuropeptide Y levels in rats with dorsomedial hindbrain lesions. Brain Res 755:84-90.
38. Epstein AN, Teitelbaum P. 1964. Severe and persistent deficits in thirst produced by lateral hypothalamic damage. In: Wayner MJ, editor. Thirst. New York: Macmillan Co. p 395-406.
39. Feldman SE, Larsson S, Dimick DM, Lepkovsky S. 1957. Aphagia in chickens. Am J Physiol 191:259-261.
40. Firman JD, Kuenzel WJ. 1988. Neuroanatomical regions of the chick brain involved in monitoring amino acid deficient diets. Brain Res Bull 21:637-642.
41. Fonberg E. 1971. Hyperphagia produced by lateral amygdalar lesions. Acta Neurobiol Exp Vars 31:19-32.
42. Fonberg E. 1976. The relation between alimentary and emotional amygdalar regulation. In: Novin D, Wyrwicka W, Bray G, editors. Hunger: basic mechanisms and clinical implications. Raven Press, New York. p 61-75.
43. Foster RG, Panzica GC, Parry DM, Viglietti-Panzica C. 1988. Immunocytochemical studies on the LHRH system of the Japanese quail: influence by photoperiod and aspects of sexual differentiation. Cell Tissue Res 253: 327-335.
44. Foster RG, Plowman G, Goldsmith AR, Follett BK. 1987. Immunocytochemical demonstration of marked changes in the luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LH-RH) system of photosensitive and photorefractory European starlings, Sturnus vulgaris. J Endocrinol 115:211-220.
45. Gibbs J, Smith GP. 1992. Cholecystokinin and bombesin: peripheral signals for satiety? In: Bray GA, Ryan DH, editors. Pennington Center nutrition series: the science of food regulation, vol. 2. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. p 224-234.
46. Gold RM. 1973. Hypothalamic obesity: the myth of the ventromedial nucleus. Science 182:488-489.
47. Gong SL, Xia FQ, Wei J, Li XY, Sun TH, Lu Z, Liu SZ. 1995. Harmful effects of MSG on function of hypothalamus-pituitary-target gland system. Biomed Environ Sci 8:310-317.
48. Grossman SP, Grossman L. 1963. Food and water intake following lesions or electrical stimulation of the amygdala. Am J Physiol 205:761-765.
49. Guillamón A, Segovia S, Del Abril A. 1988. Early effects of gonadal steroids on the neuron number in the medial posterior region and the lateral division of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in the rat brain. Dev Brain Res 44:281-290.
50. Hall NR, McClure JE, Hu SK, Tare NS, Seals CM, Goldstein AL. 1982. Effects of 6-hydroxydopamine upon primary and secondary thymus dependent immune responses. Immunopharmacology 5:39-48.
51. Hetherington A, Ranson S. 1940. Hypothalamic lesions and adiposity in the rat. Anat Rec 78:149-172.
52. Hoebel BG. 1969. Feeding and self-stimulation. Ann NY Acad Sci 157:758-778.
53. Hosoya Y, Yaginuma H, Okado N, Kohno K. 1992. Morphology of sympathetic preganglionic neurons innervating the superior cervical ganglion in the chicken: an immunohistochemical study using retrograde labeling of cholera toxin subunit B. Exp Brain Res 89:478-483.
54. Inoue S, Bray GA. 1979. An autonomic hypothesis for hypothalamic obesity. Life Sci 25:561-566.
55. Jaccoby S, Arnon E, Snapir N, Robinzon B. 1994. Effects of bilateral basomedial hypothalamic lesions on feeding, fattiness, and reproductive functions in the White Leghorn hen. Physiol Behav 56:1081-1089.
56. Jäger R. 1990. Visuomotor feeding pertubations after lateral telencephalic lesions in pigeons. Behav Brain Res 40:73-80.
57. Józsa R, Mess B. 1982. Immunohistochemical localization of the luteinizing hormone releasing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH)-containing structures in the central nervous systems of the domestic fowl. Cell Tissue Res 277:451-458.
58. Jurkevich A, Barth SW, Aste N, GC. Panzica GC, Grossmann R. 1996. Intracerebral sex differences in the vasotocin system in birds: possible implication in behavioral and autonomic functions. Horm Behav 30:673-681.
59. Jurkevich A, Barth SW, Kuenzel WJ, Grossmann R. 1997. Ontogeny of avian sexually dimorphic vasotocinergic neurons in the nucleus of the stria terminalis. Soc Neurosci Abstr 23:967.
60. Kasahara K, Tanaka S, Hamashima Y. 1977. Suppressed immune response to T-cell dependent antigen in chemically sympathectomized mice. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 18:533-542.
61. Katz DM, Karten HJ. 1979. The discrete anatomical localization of vagal aortic afferents within a catecholamine-containing cell group in the nucleus solitarius. Brain Res 171:187-195.
62. Katz DM, Karten HJ. 1983a. Subnuclear organization of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve in the pigeon, Columba livia. J Comp Neurol 217:31-46.
63. Katz DM, Karten HJ. 1983b. Visceral representation within the nucleus of the tractus solitarius in the pigeon, Columba livia. J Comp Neurol 218:42-73.
64. Katz DM, Karten HJ. 1985. Topographic representation of visceral target organs within the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve of the pigeon, Columba livia. J Comp Neurol 242:397-414.
65. Kaufman JC, Harris TJ, Higgins J, Maisel AS. 1994. Exercise-induced enhancement of immune function in the rat. Circulation 90:525-532.
66. Kennedy GC. 1967. Ontogeny of mechanisms controlling food and water intake. In: Code CF, editor. Handbook of physiology. Sect. 6: alimentary canal. vol. 1. Control of food and water intake. Washington, DC: Am Physiol Soc p 337-351.
67. Kennedy GC, Mitra J. 1963. Body weight and food intake as initiating factors for puberty in rats. J Physiol 166:408-418.
68. King JR, Farner DS. 1965. Studies of fat deposition in migratory birds. Ann NY Acad Sci 131:422-440.
69. Kitt CA, Brauth SE. 1981. Projections of the paleostriatum upon the midbrain tegmentum in the pigeon. Neuroscience 6:1551-1556.
70. Kitt CA, Brauth SE. 1986a. Telencephalic projections from midbrain and isthmal cell groups in the pigeon: I. locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus. J Comp Neurol 247:69-91.
71. Kitt CA, Brauth SE. 1986b. Telencephalic projections from midbrain and isthmal cell groups in the pigeon: II. the nigral complex. J Comp Neurol 247:92-100.
72. Klasing KC. 1988. Influence of acute feed deprivation or excess feed intake on immunocompetence of broiler chicks. Poult Sci 67:626-634.
73. Kuenzel WJ. 1972. Dual hypothalamic feeding system in a migratory bird, Zonotrichia albicollis. Am J Physiol 223: 1138-1142.
74. Kuenzel WJ. 1974. Multiple effects of ventromedial hypothalamic lesions in the White-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis. J Comp Physiol 90:169-182.
75. Kuenzel WJ. 1982. Transient aphagia produced following bilateral destruction of lateral hypothalamic area and quintofrontal tract of chicks. Physio Behav 28:237-244.
76. Kuenzel WJ. 1983. Behavioral sequence of food and water intake: its significance for elucidating central neural mechanisms controlling feeding birds. Bird Behav 5:2-15.
77. Kuenzel WJ. 1994. Central neuroanatomical systems involved in the regulation of food intake in birds and mammals. J Nutr 124:1355S-1370S.
78. Kuenzel WJ. 1998. A neural system proposed to regulate the annual cycle of migratory birds. 22nd Internat Ornithol Congr Durban (in press).
79. Kuenzel WJ, Blähser S. 1991. The distribution of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons and fibers throughout the chick brain, Gallus domesticus. Cell Tissue Res 264:481-495.
80. Kuenzel WJ, Blähser S. 1993/4. The visceral forebrain system in birds: its proposed anatomical components and functions. Poult Sci 5:29-36.
81. Kuenzel WJ, Blähser S. 1994. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-containing neurons: distribution throughout the brain of the chick, Gallus domesticus, with focus upon the lateral septal organ. Cell Tissue Res 275:91-107.
82. Kuenzel WJ, Helms CW. 1967. Obesity produced in a migratory bird by hypothalamic lesions. Bioscience 17:395-396.
83. Kuenzel WJ, Helms CW. 1970. Hyperphagia, polydipsia, and other effects of hypothalamic lesions in the white-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis. Condor 72:66-75.
84. Kuenzel WJ, Helms CW. 1974. An annual cycle study of tanstriped and white-striped white-throated sparrows. Auk 91:44-53.
85. Kuenzel WJ, Kuenzel NT. 1977. Basal metabolic rate in growing chicks, Gallus domesticus. Poult Sci 56:619-627.
86. Kuenzel WJ, Masson M. 1988. A stereotaxic atlas of the brain of the chick (Gallus domesticus). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univ Press.
87. Kuenzel WJ, McCune SK, Talbot RT, Sharp PJ, Hill JM. 1997. Sites of gene expression for vasoactive intestinal polypeptide throughout the brain of the chick, Gallus domesticus. J Comp Neurol 381:101-118.
88. Lechan RM, Molitch ME, Jackson IMD. 1983. Distribution of immunoreactive human growth hormone-like material and thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the rat central nervous system: evidence for their coexistence in the same neurons. Endocrinology 112:877-884.
89. Leibowitz SF. 1978a. Paraventricular nucleus: a primary site mediating adrenergic stimulation of feeding and drinking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 8:163-175.
90. Leibowitz SF. 1978b. Adrenergic stimulation of the paraventricular nucleus and its effects on ingestive behavior as a function of drug dose and time of injection in the light-dark cycle. Brain Res Bull 3:357-363.
91. Leibowitz SF. 1995. Brain peptides and obesity: pharmacologic treatment. Obesity Res 3:573S-589S.
92. Leibowitz SF, Hammer NJ, Chang K. 1981. Hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus lesions produced overeating and obesity in the rat. Physiol Behav 27:1031-1040.
93. Lepkovsky S, Yasuda M. 1966. Hypothalamic lesions, growth and body composition of male chickens. Poult Sci 45:582-588.
94. Leung PMB, Rogers QR. 1971. Importance of prepyriform cortex in food intake response of rats to amino acids. Am J Physiol 221:929-935.
95. Levine RR, Zeigler HP. 1981. Extratelencephalic pathways and feeding behaviors in the pigeon, Columba livia. Brain Behav Evol 19:56-92.
96. Li BH, Rowland NE. 1994. Cholecystokinin- and dexfenfluramine-induced anorexia compared using devazepide and c-fos expression in the rat brain. Regul. Peptides 50:223-233.
97. Luiten PGM, ter Horst GT, Steffens AB. 1987. The hypothalamus, intrinsic connections and outflow pathways to the endocrine system in relation to the control of feeding and metabolism. Prog Neurobiol 28:1-54.
98. Maatman R, Gross WB, Dunnington EA, Larsen AS, Siegel PB. 1993. Growth, immune response, and behavior of broiler and leghorn cockerels fed different methionine levels. Arch Geflügelk 57:249-256.
99. Macdonald RL, Cohen DH. 1973. Heart rate and blood pressure responses to electrical stimulation of the central nervous system in the pigeon (Columba livia). J Comp Neurol 150:109-136.
100. Madden KS, Felton SY, Felten DL, Sundaresan PR, Livnat S. 1989. Sympathetic neural modulation of the immune system: I. depression of T cell immunity in vivo and in vitro following chemical sympathectomy. Brain Behav Immunol 3:72-89.
101. Masic B, Wood-Gush DGM, Duncan IJH, McCorquodale C, Savory CJ. 1974. A comparison of the feeding behavior of young broiler and layer males. Brit Poult Sci 15:499-505.
102. McCarthy JC, Siegel PB. 1983. A review of genetic and physiological effects of selection in meat-type poultry. Anim Breed Abstr 51:87-94.
103. McNeill TH, Kozlowski G, Abel CJ Jr, Zimmerman EA. 1976. Neurosecretory pathways in the mallard duck brain. Localization by aldehyde fuchsin and immunoperoxidase techniques for neurophysin and gonadotropin releasing hormone. Endocrinology 99:1323-1332.
104. Mikami S, Yamada S, Hasegawa Y, Miyamoto K. 1988. Localization of avian LHRH-immunoreactive neurons in the hypothalamus of the domestic fowl, Gallus domesticus and the Japanese quail, Coturnix coturnix. Cell Tissue Res 251:51-58.
105. Miller LL, Siegel PB, Dunnington EA. 1992. Inheritance of antibody response to sheep erythrocytes in lines of chickens divergently selected for fifty-six-day body weight and their crosses. Poult Sci 71:47-52.
106. Morgane PJ, Kosman AJA. 1957. Rhinencephalic feeding center in the cat. Am J Physiol 197:158-162.
107. Murray MJ, Murray AB. 1979. Anorexia of infection as a mechanism of host defense. Am J Clin Nutr 32:593-596.
108. Nagai K, Ino H, Yamamoto H, Yamano M, Tohyama M, Shiosaka S, Shiotani Y, Inagaki S, Kitoh S. 1987 Lesions in the lateral part of the dorsal parabrachial nucleus caused hyperphagia and obesity. J Clin Biochem Nutr 3:103-112.
109. Nir I, Nitzan Z, Dror Y, Shapira N. 1978. Influence of overfeeding on growth, obesity and intestinal tract in young chickens of light and heavy breeds. Brit J Nutr 39:27-35.
110. Powley TL. 1977. The ventromedial hypothalamic syndrome, satiety, and a cephalic phase hypothesis. Psychol Rev 84:89-126.
111. Powley TL, Opsahl C. 1974. Ventromedial hypothalamic obesity abolished by subdiaphragmatic vagotomy. Am J Physiol 266:25-33.
112. Qureshi MA, Havenstein GB. 1994. A comparison of the immune performance of a 1991 commercial broiler with a 1957 randombred strain when fed "typical" 1957 and 1991 broiler diets. Poult Sci 73:1805-1812.
113. Ritter S, Dinh TT. 1994. 2-Mercaptoacetate and 2-deoxy-D-glucose induce Fos-like immunoreactivity in rat brain. Brain Res 641:111-120.
114. Ritter S, Hutton B. 1995. Mercaptoacetate-induced feeding is impaired by central nucleus of the amygdala lesions. Physiol Behav 58:1215-1220.
115. Ritter S, Taylor JS. 1990. Vagal sensory neurons are required for lipoprivic but not glucoprivic feeding in rats. Am J Physiol 258(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 27): R1395-R1401.
116. Rowland NE, Bellinger LL, Li BH, Mendel VE. 1996. Satietin: fos mapping of putative brain sites of action. Brain Res 717:189-192.
117. Scharrer E, Langhans W. 1986. Control of food intake by fatty acid oxidation. Am J Physiol 250(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 19):R1003-R1006.
118. Schwartz NB, Kling A. 1964. The effect of amygdaloid lesions on feeding, grooming and reproduction in rats. Acta Neuroveg 26:12-34.
119. Schwartzbaum JS. 1961. Some characteristics of amygdaloid hyperphagia in monkeys. Am J Physiol 74:252-259.
120. Sclafani A, Grossman SP. 1969. Hyperphagia produced by knife cuts between the medial and lateral hypothalamus in the rat. Physiol Behav 4:533-537.
121. Shimizu H, Ohtani K, Kato Y, Tanaka Y, Mori M. 1996. Estrogen increases hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNA expression in ovariectomized obese rat. Neurosci Lett 204:81-84.
122. Smith GP, Epstein AN. 1969. Increased feeding in response to decreased glucose utilization in the rat and monkey. Am J Physiol 217:1032-1087.
123. Smith GP, Jerome C, Norgren R. 1985. Afferent axons in abdominal vagus mediate satiety effect of cholecystokinin in rats. Am J Physiol 249:R638-R641.
124. Snapir N, Ravona H, Perek M. 1973. Effect of electrolytic lesions in various regions of the basal hypothalamus in White Leghorn cockerels upon food intake, obesity, blood triglycerides and protein. Poult Sci 52:629-636.
125. Sonoda R, Kai I, Echuca Z. 1975. Effects of hypothalamic lesion on the feed intake in the hens. Jpn Poult Sci 12:37-42.
126. Stanley BG, Leibowitz SF. 1984. Neuropeptide Y: stimulation of feeding and drinking by injection into the paraventricular nucleus. Life Sci 35:2635-2642.
127. Stanley BG, Magdalin W, Seirafi A, Thomas WJ, Leibowitz SF. 1993. The perifornical area: the major focus of (a) patchily distributed hypothalamic neuropeptide Y-sensitive feeding system(s). Brain Res 604:304-317.
128. Stanley BG, Willett VL III, Donias HW, Dee HW II, Duva MA. 1996. Lateral hypothalamic NMDA receptors and glutamate as physiological mediators of eating and weight control. Am J Physiol 270:R443-R449.
129. Stellar E. 1954. The physiology of motivation. Psychol Rev 61:5-22.
130. Sterling RJ, Sharp PJ. 1982. The localisation of LH-RH neurones in the diencephalon of the domestic hen. Cell Tissue Res 222:283-298.
131. Swanson LW, Kuypers HGJM. 1980. The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus: cytoarchitectonic subdivisions and organization of projections to the pituitary, dorsal vagal complex, fluorescence double-labeling methods. J Comp Neurol 194:555-570.
132. Swanson LW, Sawchenko PE. 1983. Hypothalamic integration: organization of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Ann Rev Neurosci 6:269-324.
133. Swanson LW, Sawchencko PE, Rivier J, Vale WW. 1983. Organization of ovine corticotropin releasing factor immunoreactive cells and fibers in the rat brain: an immunocytochemical study. Neuroendocrinology 36:165-183.
134. Terni T. 1923. Richerche anatomiche sul sistema nervosa autonomia degli ucceli. Archs Ital Anat Embriol 20:433-510.
135. Tordoff MG, Geiselman PJ, Grijalva CV, Keifer SW, Novin D. 1982. Amygdaloid lesions impair ingestive responses to 2-deoxy-D-glucose but not insulin. Am J Physiol 242:R129-R135.
136. ens, Gallus domesticus. Poult Sci 52:165-172.
137. Valenstein ES, Cox VC, Kakolewski JW. 1969. Sex differences in hyperphagia and body weight following hypothalamic damage. Ann NY Acad Sci 157:1030-1048.
138. van der Kooy D, Koda LY, McGinty JF, Gerfen CR, Bloom FE. 1984. The organization of projections from the cortex, amygdala, and hypothalamus to the nucleus of the solitary tract in rat. J Comp Neurol 224:1-24.
139. Veenman CL. Wild JM, Reiner A. 1995. Organization of the avian "corticostriatal" projection system: a retrograde and anterograde pathway tracing study in pigeons. J Comp Neurol 354:87-126.
140. Viglietti-Panzica C, Garcia-Ojeda E, Aste N, Castagna C, Panzica GC. 1997. Sexual dimorphism of vasotocin system in the Japanese quail. Soc Neurosci Abstr 23:799.
141. Watanabe T, Yasuda M. 1970. Comparative and topographical anatomy of the fowl. XVI. Peripheral course of the trigeminal nerve. Jpn J Anat 32:43-57.
142. Wild JM, Arends JJA, Zeigler HP. 1984. A trigeminal sensorimotor circuit for pecking, grasping, and feeding in the pigeon, Columba livia. Brain Res 300:146-151.
143. Wild JM, Arends JJA, Zeigler HP. 1985. Telencephalic connections of the trigeminal system in the pigeon, Columba livia: a trigeminal sensimotor circuit. J Comp Neurol 234:441-464.
144. Wild JM, Arends JJA, Zeigler HP. 1990. Projections of the parabrachial nucleus in the pigeon, Columba livia. J Comp Neurol 293:499-523.
145. Wild JM, Zeigler HP. 1980. Central representation and somatotopic organization of the jaw muscles in the facial and trigeminal nuclei of the pigeon, Columba livia. J Comp Neurol 192:175-201.
146. Woods SC, Nolan LJ. 1997. The insulin story: a 25-year perspective. Appetite 28:281-282.
147. Wright A. 1975. The neural substrate of feeding behavior in birds. In: Wright P, Caryl PG, Vowles DM, editors. Neural and endocrine aspects of behaviour in birds. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
148. Wright P. 1968. Hypothalamic lesions and food/water intake in the Barbary dove. Psychonomic Sci 13:133-134.
149. Záborszky L, Beinfeld MC, Palkovits M, Heimer L. 1984. Brainstem projections to the hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus in the rat: a CCK-containing long ascending pathway. Brain Res 303:225-231.
150. Zeier H, Karten HJ. 1971. The archistriatum of the pigeon: organization of afferent and efferent connections. Brain Res 31:313-326.
151. Zeigler HP. 1973. Trigeminal deafferentiation and feeding in the pigeon: sensorimotor and motivational effects. Science 182:1155-1158.
152. Zeigler HP. 1976. Feeding behaviour of the pigeon. Adv Study Behav 7:285-389.
153. Zeigler HP, Karten HJ. 1973. Brain mechanisms and feeding behavior in the pigeon, Columba livia: quintofrontal structures. J Comp Neurol 152:59-82.
154. Zeigler HP, Green HL, Karten HJ. 1969. Neural control of feeding behavior in the pigeon. Psychon Sci Anim Physiol Psychol., 15:156-157.