Surviving separation: Cross-plantation marriages and the slave trade in antebellum South Carolina

Journal of Family History

Volumn 24, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 212-231

  West, Emily ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033114298     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319909902400205     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Charles Ball, Fifty Years in Chains: Or, the Life of an American Slave (New York: Dover, 1970 [1858]), 28.
2. George P. Rawick, The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography, Vols. 2-3 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972), and Supplement Series 1, Vol. 11 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1977), contain the South Carolina narratives that are used in this article.
3. See Paul D. Escott, Slavery Remembered: A Record of Twentieth Century Slave Narratives (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 10.
4. In Rawick's collection, 344 interviews were conducted with South Carolina ex-slaves (using residence in South Carolina during slavery as the criterion). However, 10 respondents included in Rawick's collection were excluded from my database. Of these, 6 respondents were excluded because they appeared to be white: Caroline Bevis, John Boyd, Charlie Jeff Harvey, Mary Ann Lipscomb, William P. Houseal, and Henry Gray Klugh. These respondents appeared to be white because of the context in which they mentioned "slaves," "negroes," or "darkies." Also, their interviews were not recorded in dialect. If an ex-slave was recorded as not having a dialect, then this usually was something that the interviewers felt compelled to mention. In addition, 4 other respondents were excluded because they did not relate anything about slavery times: Will Bees, who related only a postslavery anecdote; Lillie Knox, a friend of respondent Hagar Brown, who was only 35 years old and did not contribute anything that would prove significant to the sample; George Washington Murray, who was not actually a respondent but had an unfinished story written about him because he reached the national House of Representatives; and John Widgeon, who again did not respond but had an obituary written about him because of his connections with the Maryland Academy of Sciences.
5. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
6. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
7. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
8. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
9. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
10. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
11. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
12. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
13. On the advantages and disadvantages of the WPA narratives from a methodological perspective, see John Blassingame, Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1975); John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves" Journal of Negro History 20 (1935)L: 294-337; Stephen Crawford, "Quantified Memory: A Study of the W.P.A. and Fisk University Slave Narrative Collections" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1980); idem, "The Slave Family: A View from the Slave Narratives," in Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: Essays to Honor Robert W. Fogel, eds. Claudia Goldin and Hugh Rockoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 331-50; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1986); Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Escott, Slavery Remembered; Donna J. Spindel, "Assessing Memory: Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives Reconsidered," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 27 (1996): 247-61.
14. The five full-length autobiographical narratives used in this work were Ball, Fifty Years in Chains; Mattie J. Jackson, The Story of Mattie J. Jackson (1866), reprinted in Henry Louis Gates, ed., Six Women's Slave Narratives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Tom Jones, Experience and Personal Narrative of Uncle Tom Jones, Who Was for Forty Years a Slave: Also the Surprising Adventures of Wild Tom, of the Island Retreat, a Fugitive Negro from South Carolina (Boston: H. B. Skinner, 1855); Moses Roper, A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper from American Slavery (London: Harvey and Darton, 1840); and Jacob Stroyer, My Life in the South (Salem, MA: Newcombe & Gauss, 1898 [1879]).
15. The five full-length autobiographical narratives used in this work were Ball, Fifty Years in Chains; Mattie J. Jackson, The Story of Mattie J. Jackson (1866), reprinted in Henry Louis Gates, ed., Six Women's Slave Narratives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Tom Jones, Experience and Personal Narrative of Uncle Tom Jones, Who Was for Forty Years a Slave: Also the Surprising Adventures of Wild Tom, of the Island Retreat, a Fugitive Negro from South Carolina (Boston: H. B. Skinner, 1855); Moses Roper, A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper from American Slavery (London: Harvey and Darton, 1840); and Jacob Stroyer, My Life in the South (Salem, MA: Newcombe & Gauss, 1898 [1879]).
16. The five full-length autobiographical narratives used in this work were Ball, Fifty Years in Chains; Mattie J. Jackson, The Story of Mattie J. Jackson (1866), reprinted in Henry Louis Gates, ed., Six Women's Slave Narratives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Tom Jones, Experience and Personal Narrative of Uncle Tom Jones, Who Was for Forty Years a Slave: Also the Surprising Adventures of Wild Tom, of the Island Retreat, a Fugitive Negro from South Carolina (Boston: H. B. Skinner, 1855); Moses Roper, A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper from American Slavery (London: Harvey and Darton, 1840); and Jacob Stroyer, My Life in the South (Salem, MA: Newcombe & Gauss, 1898 [1879]).
17. The five full-length autobiographical narratives used in this work were Ball, Fifty Years in Chains; Mattie J. Jackson, The Story of Mattie J. Jackson (1866), reprinted in Henry Louis Gates, ed., Six Women's Slave Narratives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Tom Jones, Experience and Personal Narrative of Uncle Tom Jones, Who Was for Forty Years a Slave: Also the Surprising Adventures of Wild Tom, of the Island Retreat, a Fugitive Negro from South Carolina (Boston: H. B. Skinner, 1855); Moses Roper, A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper from American Slavery (London: Harvey and Darton, 1840); and Jacob Stroyer, My Life in the South (Salem, MA: Newcombe & Gauss, 1898 [1879]).
18. The five full-length autobiographical narratives used in this work were Ball, Fifty Years in Chains; Mattie J. Jackson, The Story of Mattie J. Jackson (1866), reprinted in Henry Louis Gates, ed., Six Women's Slave Narratives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Tom Jones, Experience and Personal Narrative of Uncle Tom Jones, Who Was for Forty Years a Slave: Also the Surprising Adventures of Wild Tom, of the Island Retreat, a Fugitive Negro from South Carolina (Boston: H. B. Skinner, 1855); Moses Roper, A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper from American Slavery (London: Harvey and Darton, 1840); and Jacob Stroyer, My Life in the South (Salem, MA: Newcombe & Gauss, 1898 [1879]).
19. The five full-length autobiographical narratives used in this work were Ball, Fifty Years in Chains; Mattie J. Jackson, The Story of Mattie J. Jackson (1866), reprinted in Henry Louis Gates, ed., Six Women's Slave Narratives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Tom Jones, Experience and Personal Narrative of Uncle Tom Jones, Who Was for Forty Years a Slave: Also the Surprising Adventures of Wild Tom, of the Island Retreat, a Fugitive Negro from South Carolina (Boston: H. B. Skinner, 1855); Moses Roper, A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper from American Slavery (London: Harvey and Darton, 1840); and Jacob Stroyer, My Life in the South (Salem, MA: Newcombe & Gauss, 1898 [1879]).
20. Cheryll Ann Cody, "Sale and Separation: Four Crises for Enslaved Women on the Ball Plantations, 1764-1854," in Larry E. Hudson, Jr., Working toward Freedom: Slave Society and Domestic Economy in the American South (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1994), 120.
21. Jane Turner Censer, North Carolina Planters and Their Children, 1800-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984), 138-39.
22. In this article, "local" separations are defined as those "within visiting distance."
23. Robert W. Fogel and Stanley S. Engerman, Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery (New York: Norton, 1974), 49.
24. See Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South, 2nd ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996), 134, 170-71, 178. Richard Sutch argued that male slaves were more likely than female slaves to be exported from the Upper South because of the desire among slave owners to retain "breeding" females ("The Breeding of Slaves for Sale and the Westward Expansion of Slavery, 1850-1860," in Race and Slavery in the Western Hemisphere: Quantitative Studies, eds. Stanley Engerman and Eugene Genovese [Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975], 173-210).
25. See Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South, 2nd ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996), 134, 170-71, 178. Richard Sutch argued that male slaves were more likely than female slaves to be exported from the Upper South because of the desire among slave owners to retain "breeding" females ("The Breeding of Slaves for Sale and the Westward Expansion of Slavery, 1850-1860," in Race and Slavery in the Western Hemisphere: Quantitative Studies, eds. Stanley Engerman and Eugene Genovese [Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975], 173-210).
26. See Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1976), 145-48.
27. On the concept of social space between the lives of slaves and those of slave owners, see Larry E. Hudson, Jr., "'All That Cash': Work and Status in the Slave Quarters," in Hudson, Working toward Freedom, 77-94.
28. See Gutman, The Black Family.
29. See Tadman, Speculators and Slaves, 211-12.
30. Recently, there been some tendency to suggest that Gutman was too optimistic about the resilience of slave families. Peter Kolchin, in his summary of the historiography of American slavery, argued that some of the arguments for slave autonomy have been overstated and eventually will be modified on the basis of future evidence (American Slavery [London: Penguin, 1993], 137). The present article argues, however, that it is the desire for autonomy on the part of the slave community, despite the constraints imposed by owners, that is of vital significance.
31. Tadman, Speculators and Slaves, 112.
32. Ibid., 120, n. 18.
33. Ibid., 136.
34. Letter to Louis Manigault from Charles Manigault, January 8, 1857, in Life and Labor on Argyle Island: Letters and Documents of a Savannah River Rice Plantation, ed. James M. Clifton (Savannah, GA: Beehive, 1978), 239.
35. Letter to Louis Manigault from Charles Manigault, January 13, 1857, in Clifton, Life and Labor, 240.
36. Bill of sale for slaves sold to James Henry Hammond, September 6, 1842, Hammond-Bryan-Cumming Family Papers, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia.
37. On the age structure of the interstate slave trade, see Tadman, Speculators and Slaves, 25-31.
38. See Thomas Russell, "Sale Day in Antebellum South Carolina: Slavery, Law, Economy, and Court-Supervised Sales" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1993); idem, "South Carolina's Largest Slave Auctioneering Firm," Chicago Kent Law Review 68 (1993): 1161-1209; idem, "Articles Sell Best Singly: The Disruption of Slave Families at Court Sales," Utah Law Review 4 (1996): 1241-82.
39. See Thomas Russell, "Sale Day in Antebellum South Carolina: Slavery, Law, Economy, and Court-Supervised Sales" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1993); idem, "South Carolina's Largest Slave Auctioneering Firm," Chicago Kent Law Review 68 (1993): 1161-1209; idem, "Articles Sell Best Singly: The Disruption of Slave Families at Court Sales," Utah Law Review 4 (1996): 1241-82.
40. See Thomas Russell, "Sale Day in Antebellum South Carolina: Slavery, Law, Economy, and Court-Supervised Sales" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1993); idem, "South Carolina's Largest Slave Auctioneering Firm," Chicago Kent Law Review 68 (1993): 1161-1209; idem, "Articles Sell Best Singly: The Disruption of Slave Families at Court Sales," Utah Law Review 4 (1996): 1241-82.
41. Russell, "Articles Sell Best Singly," 1167, n. 33.
42. See ibid., 1166-71, for a detailed description of the alleged composition of local sales.
43. Ibid., 1190-91.
44. Some of the respondents might have had knowledge of sales but might not have mentioned this to their interviewers. Many were very young during slavery times, and teenagers and young adults were far more at risk of being sold to traders. Many did not report being sold but did give information on separations affecting the lives of their parents.
45. Escott, Slavery Remembered, 46. Alternatively, Crawford, in his study of the WPA narratives throughout the American South, estimates that approximately 23 percent of slave families were broken up by sale ("Quantified Memory," 163).
46. Escott, Slavery Remembered, 46. Alternatively, Crawford, in his study of the WPA narratives throughout the American South, estimates that approximately 23 percent of slave families were broken up by sale ("Quantified Memory," 163).
47. Tadman argued that by the 1820s, the state of South Carolina had become a net exporter of slaves (Speculators and Slaves, 12, 31-41).
48. Unfortunately, the sample size was too small to undertake an investigation into the occupations of those respondents who mentioned slave sales.
49. Rawick, The American Slave, vol. 2, 133.
50. Stroyer, My Life in the South, 39-42.
51. Rawick, The American Slave, vol. 3, part 3, 219.
52. Ibid., 209.
53. See Emily West, "Love and Affection, Exploitation and Resistance: The Lives of Male and Female Slaves in Antebellum South Carolina" (Ph.D. diss., University of Liverpool, 1997), for a more detailed investigation into the relationships between slave spouses.
54. Jones, Experience and Personal Narrative, 24.
55. Ibid.
56. Rawick, The American Slave, vol. 2, part 1, 339.
57. Ibid., part 2, 235. Interestingly, Susan Hamlin was interviewed twice, once by a black (Augustus Ladson) and once by a white (Jessie Butler). This extract is from the interview conducted by a black. When she was interviewed by a white, she said, "Mr. Fuller didn't sell none of us. We stay wid our ma's til we grown. I stay wid my ma til she dead." See Davidson and Lytle, After the Fact, chap. 7, 191-201.
58. Ibid., part 2, 235. Interestingly, Susan Hamlin was interviewed twice, once by a black (Augustus Ladson) and once by a white (Jessie Butler). This extract is from the interview conducted by a black. When she was interviewed by a white, she said, "Mr. Fuller didn't sell none of us. We stay wid our ma's til we grown. I stay wid my ma til she dead." See Davidson and Lytle, After the Fact, chap. 7, 191-201.
59. Rawick, The American Slave, vol. 2, part 2, 145.
60. See Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South (New York: Knopf, 1956), and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, DC: Office of Policy Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor, 1965).
61. See Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South (New York: Knopf, 1956), and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, DC: Office of Policy Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor, 1965).
62. See Gutman, The Black Family.
63. Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Vintage, 1974 [1972]), 473.
64. Richard H. Steckel, The Economics of U.S. Slave and Southern White Fertility (New York: Garland, 1985), 229.
65. Deborah White, Ar'n't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985), 154, emphasis in original.
66. Escott, Slavery Remembered, 50-52, 62.
67. Crawford, "Quantified Memory," 149-54.
68. Ibid., 151.
69. For a wider discussion on the nature of cross-plantation marriages, see Emily West, "The Debate on the Strength of Slave Families: South Carolina and the Importance of Cross-Plantation Marriages," Journal of American Studies (in press).
70. For a list of the five WPA respondents married before the Civil War, see West, "Love and Affection," 91.
71. These were Ryer Emmanuel and Will Dill. See Rawick, The American Slave, vol. 2, part 2, 23, and vol. 2, part 1, 319.
72. These were Ryer Emmanuel and Will Dill. See Rawick, The American Slave, vol. 2, part 2, 23, and vol. 2, part 1, 319.
73. Ball, Fifty Years in Chains, 25, emphasis added.
74. Jackson, The Story of Mattie J. Jackson, 7.
75. Rawick, The American Slave, vol. 2, part 1, 188.
76. Ibid., vol. 3, part 4, 158.
77. Ibid. vol. 3, part 3, 191.
78. Ibid., vol. 2, part 2, 279-80.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid., vol. 2, part 1, 39.
81. Ibid., vol. 3, part 3, 1-2.
82. Ibid., vol. 3, part 3, 164.
83. Ibid., vol. 2, part 2, 130.
84. SeeTadman, Speculators and Slaves, 136.
85. Roper, A Narrative, 2-3.
86. Ibid., 4.
87. Ball, Fifty Years in Chains, 430.