Medical causes of death in preindustrial Europe: Some historiographical considerations

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 54, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 241-260

  Arrizabalaga, Jon ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CAUSE OF DEATH; EPIDEMIOLOGY; EUROPE; HISTORY; HUMAN;

CAUSE OF DEATH; EPIDEMIOLOGY; EUROPE; HISTORIOGRAPHY; HISTORY, 15TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 16TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, MEDIEVAL; HUMANS;

EID: 0033113054     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/54.2.241     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. For general overviews on this topic, see Philip P. Wiener, ed., Dictionary of the History of Ideas (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), I, 634-46; W.T. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of Bioethics (New York: The Free Press, 1978), I, 221-307. On Western perceptions and reaction to death, see Philippe Ariès, Western Attitudes Towards Death: From the Middle Ages to the Present (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974); Michel Vovelle, La mort et l'Occident de 1300 à nos jours (Paris: Gallimard, 1983).
2. For general overviews on this topic, see Philip P. Wiener, ed., Dictionary of the History of Ideas (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), I, 634-46; W.T. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of Bioethics (New York: The Free Press, 1978), I, 221-307. On Western perceptions and reaction to death, see Philippe Ariès, Western Attitudes Towards Death: From the Middle Ages to the Present (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974); Michel Vovelle, La mort et l'Occident de 1300 à nos jours (Paris: Gallimard, 1983).
3. For general overviews on this topic, see Philip P. Wiener, ed., Dictionary of the History of Ideas (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), I, 634-46; W.T. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of Bioethics (New York: The Free Press, 1978), I, 221-307. On Western perceptions and reaction to death, see Philippe Ariès, Western Attitudes Towards Death: From the Middle Ages to the Present (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974); Michel Vovelle, La mort et l'Occident de 1300 à nos jours (Paris: Gallimard, 1983).
4. For general overviews on this topic, see Philip P. Wiener, ed., Dictionary of the History of Ideas (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), I, 634-46; W.T. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of Bioethics (New York: The Free Press, 1978), I, 221-307. On Western perceptions and reaction to death, see Philippe Ariès, Western Attitudes Towards Death: From the Middle Ages to the Present (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974); Michel Vovelle, La mort et l'Occident de 1300 à nos jours (Paris: Gallimard, 1983).
5. David Landy, "Anthropological perspective of death," in Reich, (n. 1) Encyclopedia of Bioethics I, 221-29.
6. By no means do I deny that to some extent death had been already medicalized in Western medieval Europe before the thirteenth century; I merely want to emphasize that the construction of "scholastic medicine" pointed to a major landmark in this respect.
7. On this topic, see the recent overviews by Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine. An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Danielle Jacquart and Françoise Micheau, La médecine arabe et l'occident médiéval (Paris: Maisonneuve and Larose, 1990); Michael R. McVaugh and Nancy G. Siraisi, eds., Renaissance Medical Learning. Evolution of a Tradition, Osiris, 2nd series, 1990, 6; Luis García-Ballester, Roger K. French, Jon Arrizabalaga and Andrew Cunningham, eds., Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
8. On this topic, see the recent overviews by Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine. An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Danielle Jacquart and Françoise Micheau, La médecine arabe et l'occident médiéval (Paris: Maisonneuve and Larose, 1990); Michael R. McVaugh and Nancy G. Siraisi, eds., Renaissance Medical Learning. Evolution of a Tradition, Osiris, 2nd series, 1990, 6; Luis García-Ballester, Roger K. French, Jon Arrizabalaga and Andrew Cunningham, eds., Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
9. On this topic, see the recent overviews by Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine. An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Danielle Jacquart and Françoise Micheau, La médecine arabe et l'occident médiéval (Paris: Maisonneuve and Larose, 1990); Michael R. McVaugh and Nancy G. Siraisi, eds., Renaissance Medical Learning. Evolution of a Tradition, Osiris, 2nd series, 1990, 6; Luis García-Ballester, Roger K. French, Jon Arrizabalaga and Andrew Cunningham, eds., Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
10. On this topic, see the recent overviews by Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine. An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Danielle Jacquart and Françoise Micheau, La médecine arabe et l'occident médiéval (Paris: Maisonneuve and Larose, 1990); Michael R. McVaugh and Nancy G. Siraisi, eds., Renaissance Medical Learning. Evolution of a Tradition, Osiris, 2nd series, 1990, 6; Luis García-Ballester, Roger K. French, Jon Arrizabalaga and Andrew Cunningham, eds., Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
11. On the "open model" of medical teaching and its contrasts with the "closed" or institutionalized one, see Luis García-Ballester, La medicina a la València medieval (València: Edicions Alfons el Magnànim, 1988), pp. 42-45.
12. On the genre of the Ars moriendi, see Mary Catherine O'Connor, The Art of Dying Well: The Development of the Ars moriendi (New York: Columbia University Press, 1942; fac. repr.: New York, AMS Press, 1966).
13. On the representations of the physician in the literary tradition of the "Dance of Death," see
14. Aldred Scott Warthin, "The Physician of the Dance of Death," Ann. Med. Hist., new series, 1930, 2, pp. 351-71, 453-69, 697-710;
15. and 1931, 3, pp. 75-109, 134-65.
16. Among the earliest are those resulting from two university disputations that were apparently held at Wittenberg and Jena in the 1650s. See P.P. Roberus, ΘANATOΛOΓIA, sive disputatio philosophica de morte (Wittenberg, 1656); Caspar Posner, Disputatio Physica de Morte (Jena: Prelo Nisiano, 1659) [Theodorus Rollius, respondent].
17. Among the earliest are those resulting from two university disputations that were apparently held at Wittenberg and Jena in the 1650s. See P.P. Roberus, ΘANATOΛOΓIA, sive disputatio philosophica de morte (Wittenberg, 1656); Caspar Posner, Disputatio Physica de Morte (Jena: Prelo Nisiano, 1659) [Theodorus Rollius, respondent].
18. One of the foundational works of this discipline might be S. Ansche), Thanatologia, sive in mortis naturam, causas, genera ac species et diagnosis disquisitiones (Gottingen, 1795). In English, it seems to have appeared for the first time in Dunglison's Medical Lexicon of 1842 (see Oxford English Dictionary, compact edition, p. 3276). Since the mid-twentieth century, thanatology deals with death and dying from a more global viewpoint, being particularly concerned with their psychosocial aspects.
19. One of the foundational works of this discipline might be S. Ansche), Thanatologia, sive in mortis naturam, causas, genera ac species et diagnosis disquisitiones (Gottingen, 1795). In English, it seems to have appeared for the first time in Dunglison's Medical Lexicon of 1842 (see Oxford English Dictionary, compact edition, p. 3276). Since the mid-twentieth century, thanatology deals with death and dying from a more global viewpoint, being particularly concerned with their psychosocial aspects.
20. One of the foundational works of this discipline might be S. Ansche), Thanatologia, sive in mortis naturam, causas, genera ac species et diagnosis disquisitiones (Gottingen, 1795). In English, it seems to have appeared for the first time in Dunglison's Medical Lexicon of 1842 (see Oxford English Dictionary, compact edition, p. 3276). Since the mid-twentieth century, thanatology deals with death and dying from a more global viewpoint, being particularly concerned with their psychosocial aspects.
21. For a historical overview of the medical literature on death, see the bibliographical information reported by the various series of the Index Catalogue under the "Death" entry.
22. Erwin H. Ackerknecht, "Death in the history of medicine," Bull. Hist. Med.,1968, 42, 19-23.
23. Among these works are Analogium, Liber praestantiae, Liber de veritate, Prognostica, De pustulis, Secreta, and Signa vitae et mortis. During the Middle Ages these works circulated under two different translations, an anonymously translated Greek-Latin version of the fifth or sixth century, and an Arabic-Latin one by Gerard of Cremona (twelfth century). See Pearl Kibre, Hippocrates Latinus. Repertorium of Hippocratic writings in the Latin Middle Ages, revised ed. (New York: Fordham University Press, 1985), pp. 110-23, 226-27.
24. Hippocrates, Liber prognosticorum (London: Loeb, 1923), pp. 8-11 [book 2, ch. 2]. Galen, De Marcore, in Opera omnia, ed. Kühn, VII, 674-75; De temperamentis, lib. I, cap. III; lib. II, cap. II (ibid., I, 522-23, 582). For other passages where Galen also dealt with death, see Opera omnia, XX, 405. Rhazes, Ad regem Mansorem libri X, book X, ch. 21 (Basel: H. Petrus, 1544), pp. 306-9. See the following passages of Avicenna's Canon: I/1, doct. 4, ch. 3; I/3, ch. 1; III/9, tract. 1, ch. 9; III/II, trac. 2, ch. 6-7; IV/2, tract, 1, ch. 92, 94, 97-99. Celsus, De medicina, II.6 (London: Loeb, 1960) II, 108-17. Celsus's work remained lost until its rediscovery during the fifteenth century.
25. Hippocrates, Liber prognosticorum (London: Loeb, 1923), pp. 8-11 [book 2, ch. 2]. Galen, De Marcore, in Opera omnia, ed. Kühn, VII, 674-75; De temperamentis, lib. I, cap. III; lib. II, cap. II (ibid., I, 522-23, 582). For other passages where Galen also dealt with death, see Opera omnia, XX, 405. Rhazes, Ad regem Mansorem libri X, book X, ch. 21 (Basel: H. Petrus, 1544), pp. 306-9. See the following passages of Avicenna's Canon: I/1, doct. 4, ch. 3; I/3, ch. 1; III/9, tract. 1, ch. 9; III/II, trac. 2, ch. 6-7; IV/2, tract, 1, ch. 92, 94, 97-99. Celsus, De medicina, II.6 (London: Loeb, 1960) II, 108-17. Celsus's work remained lost until its rediscovery during the fifteenth century.
26. Hippocrates, Liber prognosticorum (London: Loeb, 1923), pp. 8-11 [book 2, ch. 2]. Galen, De Marcore, in Opera omnia, ed. Kühn, VII, 674-75; De temperamentis, lib. I, cap. III; lib. II, cap. II (ibid., I, 522-23, 582). For other passages where Galen also dealt with death, see Opera omnia, XX, 405. Rhazes, Ad regem Mansorem libri X, book X, ch. 21 (Basel: H. Petrus, 1544), pp. 306-9. See the following passages of Avicenna's Canon: I/1, doct. 4, ch. 3; I/3, ch. 1; III/9, tract. 1, ch. 9; III/II, trac. 2, ch. 6-7; IV/2, tract, 1, ch. 92, 94, 97-99. Celsus, De medicina, II.6 (London: Loeb, 1960) II, 108-17. Celsus's work remained lost until its rediscovery during the fifteenth century.
27. Hippocrates, Liber prognosticorum (London: Loeb, 1923), pp. 8-11 [book 2, ch. 2]. Galen, De Marcore, in Opera omnia, ed. Kühn, VII, 674-75; De temperamentis, lib. I, cap. III; lib. II, cap. II (ibid., I, 522-23, 582). For other passages where Galen also dealt with death, see Opera omnia, XX, 405. Rhazes, Ad regem Mansorem libri X, book X, ch. 21 (Basel: H. Petrus, 1544), pp. 306-9. See the following passages of Avicenna's Canon: I/1, doct. 4, ch. 3; I/3, ch. 1; III/9, tract. 1, ch. 9; III/II, trac. 2, ch. 6-7; IV/2, tract, 1, ch. 92, 94, 97-99. Celsus, De medicina, II.6 (London: Loeb, 1960) II, 108-17. Celsus's work remained lost until its rediscovery during the fifteenth century.
28. Hippocrates, Liber prognosticorum (London: Loeb, 1923), pp. 8-11 [book 2, ch. 2]. Galen, De Marcore, in Opera omnia, ed. Kühn, VII, 674-75; De temperamentis, lib. I, cap. III; lib. II, cap. II (ibid., I, 522-23, 582). For other passages where Galen also dealt with death, see Opera omnia, XX, 405. Rhazes, Ad regem Mansorem libri X, book X, ch. 21 (Basel: H. Petrus, 1544), pp. 306-9. See the following passages of Avicenna's Canon: I/1, doct. 4, ch. 3; I/3, ch. 1; III/9, tract. 1, ch. 9; III/II, trac. 2, ch. 6-7; IV/2, tract, 1, ch. 92, 94, 97-99. Celsus, De medicina, II.6 (London: Loeb, 1960) II, 108-17. Celsus's work remained lost until its rediscovery during the fifteenth century.
29. Hippocrates, Liber prognosticorum (London: Loeb, 1923), pp. 8-11 [book 2, ch. 2]. Galen, De Marcore, in Opera omnia, ed. Kühn, VII, 674-75; De temperamentis, lib. I, cap. III; lib. II, cap. II (ibid., I, 522-23, 582). For other passages where Galen also dealt with death, see Opera omnia, XX, 405. Rhazes, Ad regem Mansorem libri X, book X, ch. 21 (Basel: H. Petrus, 1544), pp. 306-9. See the following passages of Avicenna's Canon: I/1, doct. 4, ch. 3; I/3, ch. 1; III/9, tract. 1, ch. 9; III/II, trac. 2, ch. 6-7; IV/2, tract, 1, ch. 92, 94, 97-99. Celsus, De medicina, II.6 (London: Loeb, 1960) II, 108-17. Celsus's work remained lost until its rediscovery during the fifteenth century.
30. Hippocrates, Liber prognosticorum (London: Loeb, 1923), pp. 8-11 [book 2, ch. 2]. Galen, De Marcore, in Opera omnia, ed. Kühn, VII, 674-75; De temperamentis, lib. I, cap. III; lib. II, cap. II (ibid., I, 522-23, 582). For other passages where Galen also dealt with death, see Opera omnia, XX, 405. Rhazes, Ad regem Mansorem libri X, book X, ch. 21 (Basel: H. Petrus, 1544), pp. 306-9. See the following passages of Avicenna's Canon: I/1, doct. 4, ch. 3; I/3, ch. 1; III/9, tract. 1, ch. 9; III/II, trac. 2, ch. 6-7; IV/2, tract, 1, ch. 92, 94, 97-99. Celsus, De medicina, II.6 (London: Loeb, 1960) II, 108-17. Celsus's work remained lost until its rediscovery during the fifteenth century.
31. Hippocrates, Liber prognosticorum (London: Loeb, 1923), pp. 8-11 [book 2, ch. 2]. Galen, De Marcore, in Opera omnia, ed. Kühn, VII, 674-75; De temperamentis, lib. I, cap. III; lib. II, cap. II (ibid., I, 522-23, 582). For other passages where Galen also dealt with death, see Opera omnia, XX, 405. Rhazes, Ad regem Mansorem libri X, book X, ch. 21 (Basel: H. Petrus, 1544), pp. 306-9. See the following passages of Avicenna's Canon: I/1, doct. 4, ch. 3; I/3, ch. 1; III/9, tract. 1, ch. 9; III/II, trac. 2, ch. 6-7; IV/2, tract, 1, ch. 92, 94, 97-99. Celsus, De medicina, II.6 (London: Loeb, 1960) II, 108-17. Celsus's work remained lost until its rediscovery during the fifteenth century.
32. Jon Arrizabalaga, "Facing the Black Death: perceptions and reactions of university medical practitioners," in García-Ballester et al., (n. 4) Practical Medicine, pp. 237-88.
33. Aristotle, Parva naturalia, trans. W.S. Hett (London: Loeb, 1957), pp. 394-409, 412-27. On this question and the works of some of these physicians and natural philosophers, see Sheila R. Johansson, "Longevity theory: optimism, pessimism and the causes of death", presented at the History of Registration of the Causes of Death conference, Bloomington, Indiana, 11-14 November 1993.
34. Aristotle, Parva naturalia, trans. W.S. Hett (London: Loeb, 1957), pp. 394-409, 412-27. On this question and the works of some of these physicians and natural philosophers, see Sheila R. Johansson, "Longevity theory: optimism, pessimism and the causes of death", presented at the History of Registration of the Causes of Death conference, Bloomington, Indiana, 11-14 November 1993.
35. Juan Fragoso, "Declaraciones que han de hacer los cirujanos acerca de muchas enfermedades y muchas maneras de muertes que suceden," in Fragoso, Chirurgia universal (Madrid: Vda. de Alonso Gómez, 1586); Fortunato Fedele, De relationibus medicorum libri quatuor. In quibus ea omnia quae forensibus ac publicis causis medici referre soient, plenissime traduntur (Palermo: J.A. de Franciscis, 1602).
36. Juan Fragoso, "Declaraciones que han de hacer los cirujanos acerca de muchas enfermedades y muchas maneras de muertes que suceden," in Fragoso, Chirurgia universal (Madrid: Vda. de Alonso Gómez, 1586); Fortunato Fedele, De relationibus medicorum libri quatuor. In quibus ea omnia quae forensibus ac publicis causis medici referre soient, plenissime traduntur (Palermo: J.A. de Franciscis, 1602).
37. For an overview of the ideas about the prolongation of life inside and outside this tradition, see Gerald J. Gruman, A History of the Ideas about the Prolongation of Life. The Evolution of Prolongevity Hypotheses to 1800, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, new series, vol. LVI, part 9 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1966). For particular topics, see Thomas S. Hall, "Life, death and the radical moisture. A study of thematic pattern in medieval medical theory," Clio Med., 1971, 6, 3-23; Peter H. Niebyl, "Old age, fever, and the lamp metaphor," J. Hist. Med., 1971, 26, 351-68; Michael R. McVaugh, "The humidum radicale in thirteenth-century medicine," Traditio, 1974, 30, 259-83.
38. For an overview of the ideas about the prolongation of life inside and outside this tradition, see Gerald J. Gruman, A History of the Ideas about the Prolongation of Life. The Evolution of Prolongevity Hypotheses to 1800, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, new series, vol. LVI, part 9 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1966). For particular topics, see Thomas S. Hall, "Life, death and the radical moisture. A study of thematic pattern in medieval medical theory," Clio Med., 1971, 6, 3-23; Peter H. Niebyl, "Old age, fever, and the lamp metaphor," J. Hist. Med., 1971, 26, 351-68; Michael R. McVaugh, "The humidum radicale in thirteenth-century medicine," Traditio, 1974, 30, 259-83.
39. For an overview of the ideas about the prolongation of life inside and outside this tradition, see Gerald J. Gruman, A History of the Ideas about the Prolongation of Life. The Evolution of Prolongevity Hypotheses to 1800, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, new series, vol. LVI, part 9 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1966). For particular topics, see Thomas S. Hall, "Life, death and the radical moisture. A study of thematic pattern in medieval medical theory," Clio Med., 1971, 6, 3-23; Peter H. Niebyl, "Old age, fever, and the lamp metaphor," J. Hist. Med., 1971, 26, 351-68; Michael R. McVaugh, "The humidum radicale in thirteenth-century medicine," Traditio, 1974, 30, 259-83.
40. For an overview of the ideas about the prolongation of life inside and outside this tradition, see Gerald J. Gruman, A History of the Ideas about the Prolongation of Life. The Evolution of Prolongevity Hypotheses to 1800, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, new series, vol. LVI, part 9 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1966). For particular topics, see Thomas S. Hall, "Life, death and the radical moisture. A study of thematic pattern in medieval medical theory," Clio Med., 1971, 6, 3-23; Peter H. Niebyl, "Old age, fever, and the lamp metaphor," J. Hist. Med., 1971, 26, 351-68; Michael R. McVaugh, "The humidum radicale in thirteenth-century medicine," Traditio, 1974, 30, 259-83.
41. Charles E. Rosenberg, "Disease in history: frame and framers," in Rosenberg and Janet Golden, eds., "Framing disease: the creation and negotiation of explanatory schemes," Milkbank Q., 1989, 67, supplement 1, 1-16.
42. See Anne Fagot-Largeault, "On medicine's scientificity: Did medicine's accession to scientific positivity in the course of the mid-nineteenth century require giving up some causal (etiological) explanation?" in Corina Delkeskamp-Hayes and Mary Ann Gardell Outter, eds., Science, Technology, and the Art of Medicine: European-American Dialogues (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993), pp. 199-226. For a nineteenth-century case illustrating the reluctance with which the old causal system was displaced, see Christopher Hamlin, "Predisposing causes and public health in early nineteenth-century medical thought," Soc. Hist. Med., 1992, 5, 43-70.
43. See Anne Fagot-Largeault, "On medicine's scientificity: Did medicine's accession to scientific positivity in the course of the mid-nineteenth century require giving up some causal (etiological) explanation?" in Corina Delkeskamp-Hayes and Mary Ann Gardell Outter, eds., Science, Technology, and the Art of Medicine: European-American Dialogues (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993), pp. 199-226. For a nineteenth-century case illustrating the reluctance with which the old causal system was displaced, see Christopher Hamlin, "Predisposing causes and public health in early nineteenth-century medical thought," Soc. Hist. Med., 1992, 5, 43-70.
44. Andrew Cunningham, "Transforming plague: the laboratory and the identity of infectious disease," in Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams, eds., The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 209-44.
45. Ibid.; Lester S. King, Medical Thinking. A Historical Preface (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 187-223; Codell Carter, "Causes of disease and causes of death," Continuity and Change, 1997, 12, 189-98. On the earliest medical conceptualizations of plague in pre-laboratory Europe, see, for example, Arrizabalaga, (n. 13).
46. Ibid.; Lester S. King, Medical Thinking. A Historical Preface (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 187-223; Codell Carter, "Causes of disease and causes of death," Continuity and Change, 1997, 12, 189-98. On the earliest medical conceptualizations of plague in pre-laboratory Europe, see, for example, Arrizabalaga, (n. 13).
47. Ibid.; Lester S. King, Medical Thinking. A Historical Preface (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 187-223; Codell Carter, "Causes of disease and causes of death," Continuity and Change, 1997, 12, 189-98. On the earliest medical conceptualizations of plague in pre-laboratory Europe, see, for example, Arrizabalaga, (n. 13).
48. Cunningham, (n. 19), p. 210.
49. Ibid., p. 242.
50. See Ann Jannetta, "Problems of classifying deaths in nineteenth-century Japan" in this issue, for a relevant example.
51. See in this issue Hans Christian Johansen, "The development of reporting systems for causes of death in Denmark"; John Rogers, "Reporting causes of death in Sweden, 1750-1950"; Michael Stolberg, "National statistics on the causes of death in nineteenth-century Bavaria"; and see Frans van Poppel and Jitse P. van Dijk, "The development of cause-of-death registration in Netherlands, 1865-1955," Continuity and Change, 1997, 12, 265-87.
52. See in this issue Hans Christian Johansen, "The development of reporting systems for causes of death in Denmark"; John Rogers, "Reporting causes of death in Sweden, 1750-1950"; Michael Stolberg, "National statistics on the causes of death in nineteenth-century Bavaria"; and see Frans van Poppel and Jitse P. van Dijk, "The development of cause-of-death registration in Netherlands, 1865-1955," Continuity and Change, 1997, 12, 265-87.
53. See in this issue Hans Christian Johansen, "The development of reporting systems for causes of death in Denmark"; John Rogers, "Reporting causes of death in Sweden, 1750-1950"; Michael Stolberg, "National statistics on the causes of death in nineteenth-century Bavaria"; and see Frans van Poppel and Jitse P. van Dijk, "The development of cause-of-death registration in Netherlands, 1865-1955," Continuity and Change, 1997, 12, 265-87.
54. See in this issue Hans Christian Johansen, "The development of reporting systems for causes of death in Denmark"; John Rogers, "Reporting causes of death in Sweden, 1750-1950"; Michael Stolberg, "National statistics on the causes of death in nineteenth-century Bavaria"; and see Frans van Poppel and Jitse P. van Dijk, "The development of cause-of-death registration in Netherlands, 1865-1955," Continuity and Change, 1997, 12, 265-87.
55. Yves Landry and Renald Lessard, "Causes of death in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Québec," Hist. Methods, 1995, 29, no. 2, 49-57.
56. Bartolomé Bennassar, Récherches sur les grandes épidémies dans le nord de l'Espagne à la fin du XVIe siècle. Problèmes de documentation et de méthode (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1969), pp. 56-57.
57. Quoted in Mirko D. Grmek, History of AIDS: Emergence and Origin of a Modern Pandemic, trans. Russell C. Maulitz and Jacalyn Duffin (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 162.
58. Guilia Calvi, Histories of a Plague Year: The Social and the Imaginary in Baroque Florence, trans. Dario Biocca and Bryant T. Ragan, Jr. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 104-17.
59. Linda Bryder, "'Not always one and the same thing': the registration of tuberculosis deaths in Britain, 1900-1950," Soc. Hist. Med., 1996, 9, 253-65. A reluctance to admit the real cause of death for similar reasons is also referred by Van Poppel and Van Dijk, (n. 24).
60. Lindsay Prior and Mick Bloor, "Why people die: social representations of death and its causes," Science as Culture, 1991, 3, 346-74, pp. 368-70. See also Jannetta, (n. 23); Stolberg, (n. 24).
61. On these difficulties, see the review by Josep Bernabeu-Mestre, "Enfermedad y población: Una aproximación crítica a la epidemiología històrica española," Rev. Salud Pública, 1991, 2, 67-88, especially pp. 73-74.
62. Grmek, (n. 27) History of AIDS, p. 109. According to the concept of pathocènose Grmek developed in 1969, our ability to treat infectious diseases effectively has smoothed the way for the emergence of AIDS and other new infectious diseases. See Mirko D. Grmek, "Préliminaires d'une étude historique des maladies," Ann. E.S.C., 1969, 24, 1437-83.
63. Grmek, (n. 27) History of AIDS, p. 109. According to the concept of pathocènose Grmek developed in 1969, our ability to treat infectious diseases effectively has smoothed the way for the emergence of AIDS and other new infectious diseases. See Mirko D. Grmek, "Préliminaires d'une étude historique des maladies," Ann. E.S.C., 1969, 24, 1437-83.
64. Grmek, (n. 27) History of AIDS, p. 109.
65. Nowadays, according to the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta (1993), an individual is considered to have AIDS if, in addition to seropositivity, he or she suffers from one or several of the twenty-eight specific diseases associated with AIDS.
66. H. Butterfield, The Whig Interpretation of History (1931; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973).
67. Adrian Wilson and T.G. Ashplant, "Whig history and present-centred history," Hist. J., 1988, 31, 1-16, p. 16; Ashplant and Wilson, "Present-centred history and the problem of historical knowledge," Hist. J., 1988, 31, 253-74, p. 274.
68. Adrian Wilson and T.G. Ashplant, "Whig history and present-centred history," Hist. J., 1988, 31, 1-16, p. 16; Ashplant and Wilson, "Present-centred history and the problem of historical knowledge," Hist. J., 1988, 31, 253-74, p. 274.
69. Charles Rosenberg, "Disease and social order in America: perceptions and expectations," in Elisabeth Fee and Daniel Fox, eds., AIDS: The Burdens of History (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1988), pp. 12-32, p. 12.
70. On the philosophical question of the nature of disease, see, for instance, Lawrie Reznek, The Nature of Disease (London: RKP, 1987).
71. On ontologism in the history of medicine, see Owsei Temkin, "The scientific approach to disease: specific entity and individual sickness," in O. Temkin, The Double Face of Janus and Other Essays in the History of Medicine (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 441-55.
72. On this topic, see Lloyd G. Stevenson, "Science down the drain: on the hostility of certain sanitarians to animal experimentation, bacteriology and immunology," Bull. Hist. Med, 1955, 29, 1-26.
73. Cunningham, (n. 19), p. 240 (emphasis in original).
74. Ibid., 238-42, p. 240.
75. On the theoretical developments of nosology during the twentieth century, see Pedro Lain Entralgo, El diagnóstico médico: Histaria y tcoría (Barcelona: Salvat, 1982), pp. 119-82.
76. This attitude is clearly illustrated by Mirko D. Grmek, Les maladies à l'aube de la civilisation occidentale: Recherches sur la réalité pathologique dans le monde grec préhistorique, archaïque et classique (Paris: Payot, 1983).
77. For a plain example of this approach, see Carlo M. Cipolla, I pidocchi e il Gran Duca (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1979); Cipolla, Miasmi ed umori (Bologna: II Mulino, 1989).
78. For a plain example of this approach, see Carlo M. Cipolla, I pidocchi e il Gran Duca (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1979); Cipolla, Miasmi ed umori (Bologna: II Mulino, 1989).
79. As a recent controversial example, which found resonance even in the newspapers, see Margaret Davies and Trevor A. Lloyd Davies, "Resurrection or resuscitation?" J.R. Coll. Physicians Lond., 1991, 25, no. 2, 167-70. In this surprising article about the historical question of Christ's death and resurrection, the authors conclude from a reading of the Bible in the light of present-day medical knowledge, that Christ did not die and, therefore, was not resurrected. Instead, he was resuscitated; that is, he merely recovered from a heart collapse.
80. Cunningham, (n. 19), p. 242.
81. R.G. Collingwood, An Autobiography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 58.
82. Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport: Greenwood, 1972); Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); William H. NcNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1976); Kenneth F. Kiple, The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Kiple, The African Exchange: Toward a Biological History of Black People (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988).
83. Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport: Greenwood, 1972); Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); William H. NcNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1976); Kenneth F. Kiple, The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Kiple, The African Exchange: Toward a Biological History of Black People (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988).
84. Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport: Greenwood, 1972); Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); William H. NcNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1976); Kenneth F. Kiple, The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Kiple, The African Exchange: Toward a Biological History of Black People (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988).
85. Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport: Greenwood, 1972); Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); William H. NcNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1976); Kenneth F. Kiple, The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Kiple, The African Exchange: Toward a Biological History of Black People (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988).
86. Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport: Greenwood, 1972); Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); William H. NcNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1976); Kenneth F. Kiple, The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Kiple, The African Exchange: Toward a Biological History of Black People (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988).
87. The demographic and epidemiological studies of present-day and developing societies have proved since Ackerknecht to be one of the most useful auxiliary tools for this purpose because they offer a geographical approach to the history of human. See Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Geschichte und Geographie der wichtigsten Krankenheiten (Stuttgart: F. Enke, 1963) [History and Geography of the Most Important Diseases (New York/London: Hafner, 1966)]; Ann G. Carmichael, Plague and the Poor in Renaissance Florence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
88. The demographic and epidemiological studies of present-day and developing societies have proved since Ackerknecht to be one of the most useful auxiliary tools for this purpose because they offer a geographical approach to the history of human. See Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Geschichte und Geographie der wichtigsten Krankenheiten (Stuttgart: F. Enke, 1963) [History and Geography of the Most Important Diseases (New York/London: Hafner, 1966)]; Ann G. Carmichael, Plague and the Poor in Renaissance Florence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
89. The demographic and epidemiological studies of present-day and developing societies have proved since Ackerknecht to be one of the most useful auxiliary tools for this purpose because they offer a geographical approach to the history of human. See Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Geschichte und Geographie der wichtigsten Krankenheiten (Stuttgart: F. Enke, 1963) [History and Geography of the Most Important Diseases (New York/London: Hafner, 1966)]; Ann G. Carmichael, Plague and the Poor in Renaissance Florence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
90. Expresiones diagnósticas y causas de muerte. Workshop organized by Josep Bernabeu-Mestre and Elena Robles, Valencia, June 1993. The results of this workshop were published as monograph of Bol. Asoc. Demografía Histórica, 1993, 11, no. 3.
91. Expresiones diagnósticas y causas de muerte. Workshop organized by Josep Bernabeu-Mestre and Elena Robles, Valencia, June 1993. The results of this workshop were published as monograph of Bol. Asoc. Demografía Histórica, 1993, 11, no. 3.