Trends in Saudi national security

Middle East Journal

Volumn 53, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 232-251

  Kechichian, Joseph A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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EID: 0033101028     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. David E. Long, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997), pp. 107-23; see also Sulayman Nyang and Evan Hendricks, A Line in the Sand: Saudi Arabia's Role in the Gulf War (P.T. Books, 1995), pp. 170-80.
2. David E. Long, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997), pp. 107-23; see also Sulayman Nyang and Evan Hendricks, A Line in the Sand: Saudi Arabia's Role in the Gulf War (P.T. Books, 1995), pp. 170-80.
3. Abdallah Y. Bishara, "Outline of the Seminar on the Security of the Gulf," The First Five Years of the GCC Experiment in Unification (1981-1986) (Riyadh: Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Gulf, 1987), pp. 23-24.
4. R.K. Ramazani, "Iran's Islamic Revolution and the Persian Gulf," Current History 84, no. 498 (January 1985), p. 8.
5. Ayman Al-Yassini, Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Boulder and London: Westview Press, 1985), p. 123.
6. Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985), p. 57.
7. Ibid.
8. R.K. Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran: Challenge and Response in the Middle East (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 28-29.
9. Al-Siyassa (Kuwait), 24 August 1978, p. 1.
10. Al-Jazira, 6 January 1979, p. 1 (author's translation).
11. Foreign Broadcast Information Service-Middle East and Africa (Hereafter FBIS-MEA)-V-81-187, 26 September 1981, p. ii.
12. "Iranian Demonstrations Denied," FBIS-MEA-V-81-193, 6 October 1981, p. C9.
13. Saudi Arabia-Foreign Relations, "Relations with Iran: 3-At the Dawn of the Islamic Republic (1978-1981)," FMA Arab World File, Sau 1301/3, no. 2098, 13 January 1982, p. 2.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Peter W. Wilson and Douglas F. Graham, Saudi Arabia: The Coming Storm (Armonk, New York: M.W. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 105-108.
17. The Economist Intelligence Unit, "The Violent Disturbances at Makkah," Country Report-Saudi Arabia, no. 4 (1987) (London: 1987), p. 5.
18. Abd al-Aziz Al-Mihanna, "Spotlight on News," FBIS-MEA-V-87-174, 9 September 1987, p. J5.
19. Peter Ford, "Arabs Ready to Let Iran in From the Cold," The Christian Science Monitor, 6 June 1991, pp. 1, 2.
20. Anthony H. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 7-9; see also Saeed M. Badeeb, Saudi-Iranian Relations, 1932-1982 (London: Centre for Arab and Iranian Studies and Echoes, 1993), especially pp. 90-92, 126-32.
21. Anthony H. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 7-9; see also Saeed M. Badeeb, Saudi-Iranian Relations, 1932-1982 (London: Centre for Arab and Iranian Studies and Echoes, 1993), especially pp. 90-92, 126-32.
22. Riad Najib El-Rayyes, Riyah al-Shamal: Al-Sa 'udiyyah wa al-Khalij wa al-'Arab fi 'Alam al-Tis'inat (Northern Wind: Saudi Arabia, the Gulf and the Arabs in the Nineties) (London and Beirut: Riad El-Rayyes Books Ltd., 1997), pp. 249-65.
23. R.K. Ramazani, "The Emerging Arab-Iranian Rapprochement: Towards an Integrated U.S. Policy in the Middle East,?" Middle East Policy 6, no. 1 (June 1998), pp. 45-62.
24. Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Gulf, "Final Statement, 18th Summit Meeting, Kuwait," 1997, p. 2.
25. The Economist Intelligence Unit, "The Foreign Minister Visits Iran," Country Report-Saudi Arabia, no. 3 (1998) (London: 1998), p. 12.
26. Ibid.
27. The Economist Intelligence Unit, "The Crown Prince's Influence on Foreign Policy Continues to Grow," Country Report-Saudi Arabia, no. 4 (1998) (London: 1998), p. 12.
28. See Ibid. Under normal circumstances, such a statement, uttered by the Iranian ambassador to the Kingdom, would have drawn some criticism.
29. See Ibid. The August 1998 statement came during the prince's visit to Tehran.
30. Asef Bayat, "Behind the Iran-Afghanistan Conflict," Middle East International, no. 584, 2 October 1998, pp. 16-17.
31. Kate Clark, "Afghanistan: Hazaras Massacred," Middle East International, no. 583, 18 September 1998, p. 13.
32. "Iran's War on Fundamentalism," The Economist 348, no. 8085, 12 September 1998, p. 47.
33. The clash between conservative forces and the Khatami government paralyzed Iranian foreign policy for much of 1998. See Adel Darwish, "Iran at the Crossroads," The Middle East Magazine, no. 280, July 1998, pp. 4-6.
34. Claude Feuillet, Le Système Saoud: après l'Iran, l'Arabie? (The Saud System: After Iran, Arabia?) (Paris: Editions Pierre-Marcel Favre, 1983). Feuillet's thesis is that the Al Sa'ud never "earned" their perceived right to control the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and needed to prove themselves. It goes without saying that this was a popular theory in Tehran. See also Bill Gertz, "Iran Now Top Threat in Region," The Washington Times, 30 May 1991, p. 1 ; Shahram Chubin, Iran's National Security Policy: Intentions, Capabilities and Impact (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1994), pp. 57-73; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Brent Scowcroft and Richard W. Murphy, Differentiated Containment: U.S. Policy Toward Iran and Iraq (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), especially pp. 19-28; and Jane Hunter, "U.S. and Iran: Serious About Rapprochement," Middle East International, no. 575, 22 May 1998, pp. 16-17.
35. Claude Feuillet, Le Système Saoud: après l'Iran, l'Arabie? (The Saud System: After Iran, Arabia?) (Paris: Editions Pierre-Marcel Favre, 1983). Feuillet's thesis is that the Al Sa'ud never "earned" their perceived right to control the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and needed to prove themselves. It goes without saying that this was a popular theory in Tehran. See also Bill Gertz, "Iran Now Top Threat in Region," The Washington Times, 30 May 1991, p. 1 ; Shahram Chubin, Iran's National Security Policy: Intentions, Capabilities and Impact (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1994), pp. 57-73; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Brent Scowcroft and Richard W. Murphy, Differentiated Containment: U.S. Policy Toward Iran and Iraq (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), especially pp. 19-28; and Jane Hunter, "U.S. and Iran: Serious About Rapprochement," Middle East International, no. 575, 22 May 1998, pp. 16-17.
36. Claude Feuillet, Le Système Saoud: après l'Iran, l'Arabie? (The Saud System: After Iran, Arabia?) (Paris: Editions Pierre-Marcel Favre, 1983). Feuillet's thesis is that the Al Sa'ud never "earned" their perceived right to control the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and needed to prove themselves. It goes without saying that this was a popular theory in Tehran. See also Bill Gertz, "Iran Now Top Threat in Region," The Washington Times, 30 May 1991, p. 1 ; Shahram Chubin, Iran's National Security Policy: Intentions, Capabilities and Impact (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1994), pp. 57-73; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Brent Scowcroft and Richard W. Murphy, Differentiated Containment: U.S. Policy Toward Iran and Iraq (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), especially pp. 19-28; and Jane Hunter, "U.S. and Iran: Serious About Rapprochement," Middle East International, no. 575, 22 May 1998, pp. 16-17.
37. Claude Feuillet, Le Système Saoud: après l'Iran, l'Arabie? (The Saud System: After Iran, Arabia?) (Paris: Editions Pierre-Marcel Favre, 1983). Feuillet's thesis is that the Al Sa'ud never "earned" their perceived right to control the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and needed to prove themselves. It goes without saying that this was a popular theory in Tehran. See also Bill Gertz, "Iran Now Top Threat in Region," The Washington Times, 30 May 1991, p. 1 ; Shahram Chubin, Iran's National Security Policy: Intentions, Capabilities and Impact (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1994), pp. 57-73; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Brent Scowcroft and Richard W. Murphy, Differentiated Containment: U.S. Policy Toward Iran and Iraq (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), especially pp. 19-28; and Jane Hunter, "U.S. and Iran: Serious About Rapprochement," Middle East International, no. 575, 22 May 1998, pp. 16-17.
38. Claude Feuillet, Le Système Saoud: après l'Iran, l'Arabie? (The Saud System: After Iran, Arabia?) (Paris: Editions Pierre-Marcel Favre, 1983). Feuillet's thesis is that the Al Sa'ud never "earned" their perceived right to control the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and needed to prove themselves. It goes without saying that this was a popular theory in Tehran. See also Bill Gertz, "Iran Now Top Threat in Region," The Washington Times, 30 May 1991, p. 1 ; Shahram Chubin, Iran's National Security Policy: Intentions, Capabilities and Impact (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1994), pp. 57-73; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Brent Scowcroft and Richard W. Murphy, Differentiated Containment: U.S. Policy Toward Iran and Iraq (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), especially pp. 19-28; and Jane Hunter, "U.S. and Iran: Serious About Rapprochement," Middle East International, no. 575, 22 May 1998, pp. 16-17.
39. John S. Habib, Ibn Saud's Warriors of Islam: The Ikhwan and their Role in the Creation of the Saudi Kingdom, 1910-1930 (Leiden: Brill, 1978).
40. David Holden and Richard Johns, The House of Saud: The Rise and Rule of the Most Powerful Dynasty in the Arab World (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981), especially pp. 198-222.
41. Ghassan Salameh, Al-Siyassa al-Kharijiyya al-Sa'udiyya Mundhu 'Am 1945 (Saudi Foreign Policy since 1945) (Beirut: Maahad al-Anma al-Arabi, 1980), pp. 628-33.
42. David E. Long, "King Faisal's World View," in Willard A. Belling, King Faisal and the Modernization of Saudi Arabia (London and Boulder: Croom Helm and Westview Press, 1980), pp. 173-83.
43. Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1985), pp. 137-38.
44. Edith and E.F. Penrose, Iraq: International Relations and National Development (London and Boulder: Ernest Benn and Westview Press, 1978), pp. 497-530.
45. Robert Litwak, Security in the Persian Gulf 2: Sources of Inter-State Conflict (London: Allanheld, Osmun & Co for the International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1981), pp. 33-35.
46. Saudi Arabia-Foreign Relations, "Relations with Iraq: 4-Cooperation for Stability in the Gulf (1979-1982)," FMA Arab World File, Sau 1306/4, no. 2286, 7 September 1983, p. 1.
47. FBIS-MEA-V-80-154, 1 August 1980, pp. C1-C3.
48. Jasim M. Abdulghani, Iraq and Iran: The Years of Crisis (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), pp. 178-218.
49. Al-Rayy Al-'Amm, 16 April 1981, p. 1; see also "Gulf States to Make Reconstruction Loans to Iraq," FBIS-MEA-V-81-073, 16 April 1981, p. A4.
50. Al-Rayy Al-'Amm, 16 April 1981, p. 1; see also "Gulf States to Make Reconstruction Loans to Iraq," FBIS-MEA-V-81-073, 16 April 1981, p. A4.
51. David Pike, "Seeking the elusive goal of security," Middle East Economic Digest (MEED) 36, no. 11, 22 March 1991, p. III.
52. Khaled bin Sultan, Desert Warrior: A Personal View of the Gulf War by the Joint Forces Commander (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1995), pp. 153-71.
53. David E. Long, "Saudi Arabia in the 1990s: Plus ça Change. . . ," in Charles F. Doran and Stephen W. Buck, eds., The Gulf, Energy, and Global Security: Political and Economic Issues (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1991), p. 96.
54. Stephen Fidler and Roula Khalaf, "US Fighters Launch Missile Attacks on Iraqi Aircraft," The Financial Times, 6 January 1999, p. 14.
55. John Daniszewski, "War of Words Heats Up Among Arab Nations," The Los Angeles Times, 11 January 1999, p. A6.
56. Irrespective of what United Nations weapons inspectors eventually accomplish in Iraq, an assumption is made here that Baghdad will re-acquire weapons of mass destruction. Given the regional trend, including developments in Israel, Iran, India, and Pakistan, it is probably impossible to prevent Iraq, and several other countries, from eventually acquiring them as well. Saudi officials took these regional trends very seriously indeed.
57. According to a well-informed source, Iraqi officials thought that they had a deal in late July 1990, but that Saudi Arabia - with or without foreign assistance - reneged. See Pierre Salinger and Eric Laurent, Secret Dossier: The Hidden Agenda Behind the Gulf War (New York: Penguin Books, 1991), especially pp. 71-85.
58. Osama 'Abd al-Rahman, 'Arab al-Khalij fi 'Asr al-Rida (The Gulf Arabs in the Era of Reneging) (London: Riad El-Rayyes Books Ltd., 1995).
59. Mahdi Elmandjra, Première Guerre Civilisationnelle (First Civilizational War) (Casablanca, Morocco: Les Editions Toubkal, 1992), especially pp. 158-78.
60. Saeed M. Badeeb, The Saudi-Egyptian Conflict Over North Yemen, 1962-1970 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986), pp. 18-20.
61. K.S. Twitchell, Saudi Arabia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1953), p. 102.
62. Badeeb, The Saudi-Egyptian Conflict Over North Yemen, p. 51.
63. F. Gregory Gause III, Saudi-Yemeni Relations: Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), p. 68. Egyptian-trained, financed and equipped Yemeni citizens launched subversive acts against Saudi Arabia as Riyadh continued to aid royalist forces. In 1967, Yemeni "terrorists" infiltrated Saudi Arabia and set off a rash of explosions in Riyadh and other major cities. The Saudis executed those responsible and rounded up about 35,000 Yemenis who were deported to Yemen. See Dana Adams Schmidt, "Saudis Fight Yemeni Terrorists with Repression," The New York Times, 29 March 1967, p. 4.
64. F. Gregory Gause III, Saudi-Yemeni Relations: Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), p. 68. Egyptian-trained, financed and equipped Yemeni citizens launched subversive acts against Saudi Arabia as Riyadh continued to aid royalist forces. In 1967, Yemeni "terrorists" infiltrated Saudi Arabia and set off a rash of explosions in Riyadh and other major cities. The Saudis executed those responsible and rounded up about 35,000 Yemenis who were deported to Yemen. See Dana Adams Schmidt, "Saudis Fight Yemeni Terrorists with Repression," The New York Times, 29 March 1967, p. 4.
65. Gause, Saudi-Yemeni Relations, pp. 57-74.
66. 'Abd al-Rahman al-Baydani, Azmat al-Umma al-'Arabiyya wa Thawrat al-Yaman (The Crisis of the Arab Nation and the Yemeni Revolution) (Cairo, Egypt: n.p., 1984). See also Mark N. Katz, "External Powers and the Yemeni Civil War," in Jamal S. al-Suwaidi, ed., The Yemeni War of 1994: Causes and Consequences (London: Saqi Books for the Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 1995), pp. 81-93.
67. 'Abd al-Rahman al-Baydani, Azmat al-Umma al-'Arabiyya wa Thawrat al-Yaman (The Crisis of the Arab Nation and the Yemeni Revolution) (Cairo, Egypt: n.p., 1984). See also Mark N. Katz, "External Powers and the Yemeni Civil War," in Jamal S. al-Suwaidi, ed., The Yemeni War of 1994: Causes and Consequences (London: Saqi Books for the Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 1995), pp. 81-93.
68. "Mitterrand to Press Saudis on Oil Threats," Financial Times, 15 October 1993, p. 5; see also "Saudi Arabia Threatens French Oilmen," Foreign Report, 28 October 1993, p. 6.
69. "Mitterrand to Press Saudis on Oil Threats," Financial Times, 15 October 1993, p. 5; see also "Saudi Arabia Threatens French Oilmen," Foreign Report, 28 October 1993, p. 6.
70. "Border Feuds Draw New Attention to Volatile Gulf," North American News Report, 20 April 1992. For an account of the Saudi ambassador's ordeal, see " Kalima hatafiyya ma' al-Safir al-Sa'udiyya fi Sana'a'" (Telephone Interview with the Saudi Ambassador to Sana'a'), 'Ukaz, 21 April 1992, p. 5.
71. "Border Feuds Draw New Attention to Volatile Gulf," North American News Report, 20 April 1992. For an account of the Saudi ambassador's ordeal, see " Kalima hatafiyya ma' al-Safir al-Sa'udiyya fi Sana'a'" (Telephone Interview with the Saudi Ambassador to Sana'a'), 'Ukaz, 21 April 1992, p. 5.
72. "Government and People Slam Attack on Iraq," MEED 35, no. 14, 1 February 1991, p. 24.
73. Ian Williams, "Yemen Comes in From the Cold," Middle East International, no. 538, 22 November 1996, pp. 17-18; see also Brian Whitaker, "Yemen: Harmless Retribution," Middle East International, no. 572, 10 April 1998, p. 14-15; and Brian Whitaker, "Border Row with the Saudis," Middle East International, no. 580, 31 July 1998, pp. 11-12.
74. Ian Williams, "Yemen Comes in From the Cold," Middle East International, no. 538, 22 November 1996, pp. 17-18; see also Brian Whitaker, "Yemen: Harmless Retribution," Middle East International, no. 572, 10 April 1998, p. 14-15; and Brian Whitaker, "Border Row with the Saudis," Middle East International, no. 580, 31 July 1998, pp. 11-12.
75. Ian Williams, "Yemen Comes in From the Cold," Middle East International, no. 538, 22 November 1996, pp. 17-18; see also Brian Whitaker, "Yemen: Harmless Retribution," Middle East International, no. 572, 10 April 1998, p. 14-15; and Brian Whitaker, "Border Row with the Saudis," Middle East International, no. 580, 31 July 1998, pp. 11-12.
76. The Economist Intelligence Unit, "As the Yemeni President Promises a Peaceful Settlement," Country Report-Saudi Arabia, no. 3 (1998), p. 16.
77. "Democracy Takes a Shaky Hold," MEED 35, no. 21, 31 May 1991, p. 34.
78. Joseph A. Kechichian, "Inside Yemen: Looking Toward a Stable Horizon," Arabies Trends, Number 12, September 1998, pp. 24-26.
79. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, pp. 1-20; see also Anthony H. Cordesman, The Gulf and the West: Strategic Relations and Military Realities (Boulder and London: Westview Press and Mansell Publishing Limited, 1988), pp. 81-116.
80. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, pp. 1-20; see also Anthony H. Cordesman, The Gulf and the West: Strategic Relations and Military Realities (Boulder and London: Westview Press and Mansell Publishing Limited, 1988), pp. 81-116.
81. Anthony H. Cordesman, "The Role of Saudi Military Forces in the Gulf Region," in J. E. Peterson, ed., Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States (Washington, DC: Defense Academic Research Support Program and The Middle East Institute, 1988), p. 69.
82. Much has been written on this subject underscoring the massive Saudi investments in infrastructure - especially for military bases - over the past five decades. See, for example, Khaled Bin Sultan, Desert Warrior: A Personal View of the Gulf War by the Joint Forces Commander; and Joe Stork and Martha Wenger, "From Rapid Deployment to Massive Deployment," in Micah L. Sifry and Christopher Cerf, eds., The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions (New York: Times Books, 1991), pp. 34-39.
83. Much has been written on this subject underscoring the massive Saudi investments in infrastructure - especially for military bases - over the past five decades. See, for example, Khaled Bin Sultan, Desert Warrior: A Personal View of the Gulf War by the Joint Forces Commander; and Joe Stork and Martha Wenger, "From Rapid Deployment to Massive Deployment," in Micah L. Sifry and Christopher Cerf, eds., The Gulf War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions (New York: Times Books, 1991), pp. 34-39.
84. "King Fahd Speaks on War Outcome, Government," Foreign Broadcast Information Service-Near East and South Asia-Daily Report (FBIS-NES), 91-073, 16 April 1991, p. 11.
85. Shami Bin Muhammad al-Dhahiri, "Ru'yat Hawla al-Istratijiyya al-Wataniyya" (A Perspective on National Strategy), Al-Haras Al-Watani, no. 166, Muharram 1417-May 1996, pp. 34-36.
86. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, p. 103.
87. Ibid., pp. 103-104.
88. Defense expenditures were estimated at $15 billion for 1998 and $11.5 billion for 1999, representing 8.2 and 5.35 percent of total annual budgets, respectively. See Nawaf Obaid, "A Surprising Saudi Budget," Financial Times Middle East Energy, no. 32, 7 January 1999, p. 23.
89. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, p. 100.
90. The Arab Cold War was ushered in by the conflict between Nasserism and Ba'athism, which polarized the Arab nation and further highlighted differences between conservative and revolutionary regimes. For a brief - yet masterful - discussion, see Malcolm Kerr, The Arab Cold War 1958-1970 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971).
91. Mordechai Abir, Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era: Regime and Elites; Conflict and Collaboration (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988), p. 111.
92. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, p. 98; see also Hayssam Kelani, Juyush al-Sharq al-Awsat wa Tahdithat al-Qarn al-Hadi wa al-'Ishrun (Middle East Armies and Challenges of the 21st Century) (Damascus, Syria: The Arab Center for Strategic Studies, 2:7, January 1997), pp. 48-57.
93. Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, p. 98; see also Hayssam Kelani, Juyush al-Sharq al-Awsat wa Tahdithat al-Qarn al-Hadi wa al-'Ishrun (Middle East Armies and Challenges of the 21st Century) (Damascus, Syria: The Arab Center for Strategic Studies, 2:7, January 1997), pp. 48-57.
94. Joseph A. Kechichian, "The Role of the Ulama in the Politics of an Islamic State: The Case of Saudi Arabia," International Journal of Middle East Studies 18, no. 1 (February 1986), pp. 53-71. See also Joseph A. Kechichian, "Islamic Revivalism and Change in Saudi Arabia: Juhayman Utaybi's 'Letters' to the Saudi People," The Muslim World 70, no. 1 (January 1990), pp. 1-16.
95. Joseph A. Kechichian, "The Role of the Ulama in the Politics of an Islamic State: The Case of Saudi Arabia," International Journal of Middle East Studies 18, no. 1 (February 1986), pp. 53-71. See also Joseph A. Kechichian, "Islamic Revivalism and Change in Saudi Arabia: Juhayman Utaybi's 'Letters' to the Saudi People," The Muslim World 70, no. 1 (January 1990), pp. 1-16.
96. Although the United States deployed over 550,000 troops to the Kingdom in 1990, by late 1998 the figure was estimated to hover around 10,000, most of whom were assigned to monitor the no-fly zone in southern Iraq as part of Operation Southern Watch. Additional naval forces, up to 20,000-strong, were routinely deployed to the Gulf region.
97. Jane's Defense Weekly, 22 May 1996, p. 4.
98. Cordesman, "The Role of Saudi Military Forces in the Gulf Region," pp. 74-76; see also Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, pp. 21-92; and Wilson and Graham, Saudi Arabia: The Coming Storm, pp. 140-70.
99. Cordesman, "The Role of Saudi Military Forces in the Gulf Region," pp. 74-76; see also Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, pp. 21-92; and Wilson and Graham, Saudi Arabia: The Coming Storm, pp. 140-70.
100. Cordesman, "The Role of Saudi Military Forces in the Gulf Region," pp. 74-76; see also Cordesman, Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom, pp. 21-92; and Wilson and Graham, Saudi Arabia: The Coming Storm, pp. 140-70.