Surviving the loss of the parent in a nineteenth-century Dutch provincial town

Journal of Social History

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 640-669

  Beekink, Erik ^a   Van Poppel, Frans ^a   Liefbroer, Aart C ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033096479     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/32.3.641     Document Type: Article

References (75)

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7. Margareth S. Stroebe and Wolfgang Stroebe, "The mortality of bereavement: A review," in: Margareth S. Stroebe, Wolfgang Stroebe and Robert O. Hansson eds., Handbook of bereavement. Theory, research, and intervention (Cambridge, 1993) 175-195. For examples relating to tuberculosis, leprosy, malaria, syphilis, see Mead Over, Randall P. Ellis, Joyce H. Huber and Orville Solon, "The consequences of adult ill-health," in Richard G. A. Feachem et al. Eds., The health of adults in the developing world (Oxford, 1992) 161-208.
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14. About these stereotypes see Frans van Poppel, Trouwen in Nederland. Een historischdemografische studie van de 19e en vroeg-20ste eeuw (Wageningen, 1992) 308-311. About problems related to changes in role functioning see Stephen R. Shuchter and Sidney Zisook, "The course of normal grief," in Stroebe, Stroebe and Hansson eds., Handbook of bereavement 23-43.
15. About these stereotypes see Frans van Poppel, Trouwen in Nederland. Een historischdemografische studie van de 19e en vroeg-20ste eeuw (Wageningen, 1992) 308-311. About problems related to changes in role functioning see Stephen R. Shuchter and Sidney Zisook, "The course of normal grief," in Stroebe, Stroebe and Hansson eds., Handbook of bereavement 23-43.
16. Shuchter and Zisook, "The course" 38-42; Stroebe and Stroebe, "The mortality" 185.
17. Shuchter and Zisook, "The course" 38-42; Stroebe and Stroebe, "The mortality" 185.
18. Marjo Buitelaar, "Widow's worlds. Representations and realities," in Jan Bremmer and Lourens van den Bosch eds., Between poverty and the pyre. Moments in the history of widowhood (London, 1995) 1-19.
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20. Silverman and Worden, "Children's reactions" 302; Brown, Harris and Bifulco, "Long-term effects".
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23. A. Rochester, Infant mortality: results of a field study in Baltimore, Maryland. Based on births in one year (Washington,' 1923) 115. See also R.M. Woodbury, Infant mortality and its causes (Baltimore, 1926) 43 and J. Yerushalmy, M. Kramer, and E.M. Gardiner, "Studies in childbirth mortality: Puerperal fatality and loss of offspring," Public Health Reports 55 (1940).
24. A. Rochester, Infant mortality: results of a field study in Baltimore, Maryland. Based on births in one year (Washington,' 1923) 115. See also R.M. Woodbury, Infant mortality and its causes (Baltimore, 1926) 43 and J. Yerushalmy, M. Kramer, and E.M. Gardiner, "Studies in childbirth mortality: Puerperal fatality and loss of offspring," Public Health Reports 55 (1940).
25. Silverman and Worden, "Children's reactions" 306-312.
26. Silverman and Worden, "Children's reactions" 302.
27. Margareth S. Stroebe, Robert O. Hansson and Wolfgang Stroebe, "Contemporary themes and controversies in bereavement research," in Stroebe, Stroebe and Hansson eds., Handbook of bereavement 457-476.
28. Peter Uhlenberg, "Death and the family," Journal of family history 5 (1980): 313-320.
29. Samuel H. Preston and Michael R. Haines, Fatal years. Child mortality in late nineteenth-century America (Princeton, 1991) 123-127.
30. Magdalena Bengtsson, Det hotade barnet. Tre generationers spädbarns-och barnadödlighet i 1800-talets Linköping (Linköping, 1996).
31. Ulf Högberg and Göram Broström, "The demography of maternal mortality: seven Swedish parishes in the nineteenth century," International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 23 (1985): 489-497.
32. Sune Åkerman, Ulf Högberg and Tobias Andersson, "Survival of orphans in Nineteenth-Century Sweden," in Lars-Göran Tedebrand ed., Orphans and foster-children. A historical and cross-cultural perspective (Umeå, 1996) 83-103.
33. Birgit Persson and Lisa Öberg, "Foster-children and the Swedish state 1785-1915," in Tedebrand ed., Orphans and foster-children 51-81.
34. Cameron Campbell and James Z. Lee, "A death in the family: Household structure and mortality in rural Liaoning: Life-event and time-series analysis, 1792-1867," The history of the family 1 (1996): 297-328.
35. Cameron D. Campbell and James Z. Lee, Price fluctuations, Family Structure and Mortality in Two Rural Chinese Populations : A Comparison of Peasants and Serfs in Eighteenth and Nineteenth-Century Liaoning: Paper presented at the IAEH/IUSSP workshop, Population and Economy: From Hunger to Modern Economic Growth (Osaka, 1997).
36. J. van Koetsveld van Ankeren, Handleiding voor voogden en toeziend voogden, volgens het Nederlandsch Wetboek (Assen, 1839).
37. D.Q.R. Mulock Houwer, "De wezenzorg in de 19e en 20e eeuw," in B. Kruithof, T. Mous and Ph. Veerman eds. Internaat of pleeggezin, 200 Jaar discussie (Utrecht, 1981) 43-64.
38. An important characteristic of the Dutch system of care for the poor was the incorporation of private mainly denominational charity in the legal structure. The 1854 Poor law only authorized the civil authorities to act when private authorities were not able to fulfil their duties towards the poor. In each municipality the Protestant churches had a deaconate which was responsible for providing relief for the poor, for the boarding out of children in families, for the admission of orphans to the orphanages and for their livelihood. Each Roman Catholic parish also had its own poor council, responsible for the care for orphans whereas at the local level a Catholic orphanage was functioning. See H. Smissaert, Overzicht van het Nederlandsch armwezen (Haarlem, 1910).
39. The outcomes of the censuses as far as the population living in institutions is concerned were considered not to be very reliable and at least not very well comparable over time and region. See CBS, Inleiding tot de uitkomsten der Negende Algemeene Tienjaarlijksche Volkstelling met daaraan verbanden Woning- en Beroepstelling ('s-Gravenhage, 1913) 65.
40. 'Burghers' were people who lived in towns and cities who had civil rights by virtue of their social status, wealth and/or duration of residence. The various charitable institutions that they had funded, including orphanages for children from similar, privileged backgrounds were the 'burgher' orphanages.
41. J. Dankers and J. Verheul, Als een groot particulier huisgezin. Opvoeden in het Utrechtse Burgerweeshuis tussen caritas en staatszorg 1813-1991 (Zutphen, 1991) 78; J.J. Dankers, Wezenzorg en liefdadigheid. Van Utrechts Gereformeerd Burgerweeshuis tot stichting het Evert Zoudenbalch Huis, 1813-1991 (Utrecht, 1991).
42. J. Dankers and J. Verheul, Als een groot particulier huisgezin. Opvoeden in het Utrechtse Burgerweeshuis tussen caritas en staatszorg 1813-1991 (Zutphen, 1991) 78; J.J. Dankers, Wezenzorg en liefdadigheid. Van Utrechts Gereformeerd Burgerweeshuis tot stichting het Evert Zoudenbalch Huis, 1813-1991 (Utrecht, 1991).
43. S. Groenveld, J.J.H. Dekker,and Th.R.M. Willemse, Wezen en boefjes. Zes eeuwen zorg in wees-en kinderhuizen (Hilversum, 1997) 269-274.
44. Groenveld et al., Wezen en boefjes 300-301.
45. Rapport der Commissie belast met het onderzoek naar den toestand der kinderen in fabrieken arbeidende ('s-Gravenhage, 1869).
46. J.L. de Jager, In een ander thuis. De pedagogische geschiedenis van het R.C. Jongensweeshuis en Amstelstad in Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 1985) 151. See also Anne McCants, "Nederlands republikanisme en de politick van liefdadigheid", Tijdschrift voor sociale geschiedenis 22 (1994): 443-455, for a comparison of life expectancy in poor and richer Amsterdam orphanages.
47. J.L. de Jager, In een ander thuis. De pedagogische geschiedenis van het R.C. Jongensweeshuis en Amstelstad in Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 1985) 151. See also Anne McCants, "Nederlands republikanisme en de politick van liefdadigheid", Tijdschrift voor sociale geschiedenis 22 (1994): 443-455, for a comparison of life expectancy in poor and richer Amsterdam orphanages.
48. Rob van der Laarse, Bevoogding en bevinding. Heren en kerkvolk in een Hollandse provinciestad, Woerden 1780-1930 ('s-Gravenhage, 1989) 32-34; 236-240.
49. For the period studied here, in particular the cholera epidemics of 1853-55, 1859, 1866 and 1882, are worth mentioning. In addition to that, in 1857 and 1858 and in 1871 and 1882 outbreaks of smallpox took place, whereas in 1879 whooping cough and in 1876 and 1884 measles and in 1901 and 1918 diptheria prevailed. See Nico Plomp, Ziekenzorg in Woerden (Woerden, 1980) 77-96.
50. Sterfte-atlas van Nederland, 1841-1860, Nederlandsche Maatschappij tot bevordering der Geneeskunst (Amsterdam, 1866); Sterfte-atlas van Nederland over 1860-1874 (Amsterdam, 1879).
51. Sterfte-atlas van Nederland, 1841-1860, Nederlandsche Maatschappij tot bevordering der Geneeskunst (Amsterdam, 1866); Sterfte-atlas van Nederland over 1860-1874 (Amsterdam, 1879).
52. Although the regents of the former Woerden orphanage - the Municipal Orphanage or Reformed Orphanage - were still responsible for the orphans, Dutch Reformed orphans were sent to live with families of labourers and artisans from 1811 onwards. The Catholic orphanage founded in 1804 had by 1882 also ceased to be used for its original purpose and some of its orphans were sent to live in a Home for Gentlewomen where they were looked after by the home's live-in baker. See G.N.M. Vis, Het weeshuis van Woerden. 400 jaar Stadsweeshuis en Gereformeerd Wees-en Oudeliedenhuis te Woerden (Hilversum, 1996) 174-176. In view of the small numbers of children admitted to orphanages and the lack of any clear institutional structure, our research will not devote any special attention to orphaned children from Woerden placed in orphanages.
53. Frans van Poppel and Kees Mandemakers, "Differential infant and child mortality in the Netherlands 1812-1912: First results of the historical sample of the Population of the Netherlands," in A. Bideau, B. Desjardins, and H. Pérez-Brignoli, Child and infant mortality in the past (Oxford, 1997) 276-300.
54. World Health Organisation, A WHO report on social and biological effects on perinatal mortality. Vol 1.(Budapest, 1978).
55. Irvine Loudon, Death in childbirth. An international study of maternal care and maternal mortality 1800-1950 (Oxford, 1992) 502-507.
56. Frans van Poppel, "Religion and Health: Catholicism and Regional Mortality Differences in 19th Century Netherlands," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 229-253; P.A. Thornton and S. Olson, "Family contexts of fertility and infant survival in nineteenth-century Montreal," Journal of Family History 16 (1991): 401-418; Antoinette FauveChamoux, "Les aspects culturels de la mortalité différentielle des enfants dans le passé", IUSSP, International Population Conference, Manila 1981 (Liege, 1981) Vol. 2, 341-361; M.R. O'Connell, "The Roman Catholic Tradition Since 1545," in R.L. Numbers and D.W. Amundsen eds., Caring and Curing. Health and Medicine in the Western Religious Traditions (New York, 1986) 108-145; D.T . Courtwright, "The neglect of female children and childhood sex ratios in nineteenth-century America: A review of the evidence," Journal of Family History 15 (1990): 313-323.
57. Frans van Poppel, "Religion and Health: Catholicism and Regional Mortality Differences in 19th Century Netherlands," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 229-253; P.A. Thornton and S. Olson, "Family contexts of fertility and infant survival in nineteenth-century Montreal," Journal of Family History 16 (1991): 401-418; Antoinette FauveChamoux, "Les aspects culturels de la mortalité différentielle des enfants dans le passé", IUSSP, International Population Conference, Manila 1981 (Liege, 1981) Vol. 2, 341-361; M.R. O'Connell, "The Roman Catholic Tradition Since 1545," in R.L. Numbers and D.W. Amundsen eds., Caring and Curing. Health and Medicine in the Western Religious Traditions (New York, 1986) 108-145; D.T . Courtwright, "The neglect of female children and childhood sex ratios in nineteenth-century America: A review of the evidence," Journal of Family History 15 (1990): 313-323.
58. Frans van Poppel, "Religion and Health: Catholicism and Regional Mortality Differences in 19th Century Netherlands," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 229-253; P.A. Thornton and S. Olson, "Family contexts of fertility and infant survival in nineteenth-century Montreal," Journal of Family History 16 (1991): 401-418; Antoinette FauveChamoux, "Les aspects culturels de la mortalité différentielle des enfants dans le passé", IUSSP, International Population Conference, Manila 1981 (Liege, 1981) Vol. 2, 341-361; M.R. O'Connell, "The Roman Catholic Tradition Since 1545," in R.L. Numbers and D.W. Amundsen eds., Caring and Curing. Health and Medicine in the Western Religious Traditions (New York, 1986) 108-145; D.T . Courtwright, "The neglect of female children and childhood sex ratios in nineteenth-century America: A review of the evidence," Journal of Family History 15 (1990): 313-323.
59. Frans van Poppel, "Religion and Health: Catholicism and Regional Mortality Differences in 19th Century Netherlands," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 229-253; P.A. Thornton and S. Olson, "Family contexts of fertility and infant survival in nineteenth-century Montreal," Journal of Family History 16 (1991): 401-418; Antoinette FauveChamoux, "Les aspects culturels de la mortalité différentielle des enfants dans le passé", IUSSP, International Population Conference, Manila 1981 (Liege, 1981) Vol. 2, 341-361; M.R. O'Connell, "The Roman Catholic Tradition Since 1545," in R.L. Numbers and D.W. Amundsen eds., Caring and Curing. Health and Medicine in the Western Religious Traditions (New York, 1986) 108-145; D.T . Courtwright, "The neglect of female children and childhood sex ratios in nineteenth-century America: A review of the evidence," Journal of Family History 15 (1990): 313-323.
60. Frans van Poppel, "Religion and Health: Catholicism and Regional Mortality Differences in 19th Century Netherlands," Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 229-253; P.A. Thornton and S. Olson, "Family contexts of fertility and infant survival in nineteenth-century Montreal," Journal of Family History 16 (1991): 401-418; Antoinette FauveChamoux, "Les aspects culturels de la mortalité différentielle des enfants dans le passé", IUSSP, International Population Conference, Manila 1981 (Liege, 1981) Vol. 2, 341-361; M.R. O'Connell, "The Roman Catholic Tradition Since 1545," in R.L. Numbers and D.W. Amundsen eds., Caring and Curing. Health and Medicine in the Western Religious Traditions (New York, 1986) 108-145; D.T . Courtwright, "The neglect of female children and childhood sex ratios in nineteenth-century America: A review of the evidence," Journal of Family History 15 (1990): 313-323.
61. Jan de Bruijn, Geschiedenis van de abortus in Nederland (Amsterdam, 1979) 111.
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63. Kornin, "Child maltreatment".
64. Silverman and Worden, "Children's reactions" 311.
65. Jodi Ermers, "Medea's or fallen angels? The prosecution of infanticide and stereotypes of child murderesses in the Netherlands in the 19th century," in International Commission on Historical Demography, The role of the state and public opinion in sexual attitudes and demographic behaviour (Madrid, 1990) 483-492.
66. Over et al., "The consequences".
67. Silverman and Worden, "Children's reactions", 304-305.
68. See H.P Blossfeld and G. Rohwer,Techniques of Event History Analysis (Hillsdale, N.J., 1995) for an excellent introduction to event history modelling.
69. Children of widows and widowers and those from complete families were thus included in the analysis (censored) until the moment they left Woerden. The information on date of migration was based on the population registers.
70. D.R. Cox, "Regression models and lifetables," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 34 (1972): 187-202.
71. G. Rohwer, TDA User's Manual (Berlin, 1997)
72. W. Rutten, 'De vreselijkste aller harpijen'. Pokkenepidemieën en pokken bestrijding in Nederland in de achttiende en negentiende eeuw: een sociaal-historische en historisch-demografische studie. (Wageningen, 1997) 356-357.
73. We also studied whether the survival prospects of the child differed for various combinations of gender of the child and surviving parent. No such effect could be observed.
74. Antonta Pinnelli, "The condition of women and the health and mortality of infants and children," in N. Federici, K. Oppenheim Mason and S. Sogner eds., Women's position and demographic change (Oxford, 1993) 182-189.
75. To avoid dependence between siblings, one could also analyse first-born, second-born etc. separately (a procedure followed by Göram Broström, "The influence of mother's death on infant mortality: a case study in matched data survival analysis", Scandinavian Journal of Statistics 14 [1987]: 113-123) but the size of the sample is for this purpose much too small.