Cameroon: A country united by ethnic ambition and difference

African Affairs

Volumn 98, Issue 390, 1999, Pages 101-118

  Nyamnjoh, Francis B ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNICITY; NATIONAL POLITICS;

CAMEROON;

EID: 0033052789     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007989     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. See Libération of 14 and 15 November 1998, p. 18 for Karl Laske's articles on 'Koagne, Phomme qui multipliait les dollars' and 'Ce Camerounais qui exeroquait des chefs d'Etat est detenu au Yemen'.
2. M. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the legacy of late colonǐalísm (James Currey, London, 1996), pp. 8-27.
3. See H. Mono Ndjana, Les Proverbes de Paul Biya (Editions du Carrefour, Yaoundé, 1997), for more on this and other common sayings, the origin of which he attributes to President Paul Biya, while blaming on the opposition and other forces of dissent their creative, critical and provocative interpretation.
4. This was the period between April 1991 and January 1992, when the radical opposition issued calls, ultimatums, tracts, etc., asking the public to immobilize economic activity by staying indoors, blocking streets, refusing to pay taxes and bills, and boycotting markets and offices. The intention was to force the government to agree to hold a 'sovereign national conference'. These protests were to be intensified after President Biya, in what many observers have termed his firmest and most provocative speech ever, declared on 27 June 1991 that 'the national conference is pointless in Cameroon', and that he would maintain order at all costs.
5. Tchop Tchop, Candidat Unique de l'Opposition (Vol. 1 audio sketch, 1997).
6. Cf. F. B. Nyamnjoh, The Cameroon G.C.E. Crisis: A test of anglophone solidarity (Nooremac, Limbe, 1996).
7. F. B. Nyamnjoh, Mass Media and Democratisation in Cameroon (Friedrich-Ebert Foundation, Yaounde, 1996).
8. J.-F. Bayart, The State in Africa: The politics of the belly (Longman, London, 1993).
9. The four parties included Louis Tobie Mbida's Parti des Démocrates Camerounais (PDC), the Parti Socialiste Camerounais (PSC) of Nseth Nseth Appolinaire-Guillaume, the Parti de l'Alliance Liberale (PAL) of Bedzigui Célestin, and Ngouo Woungly Massaga's Parti de la Solidarité du Peuple (PSP). They viewed the Yaoundé Plan of Action as a call for war and violence, and claimed they were ready for dialogue with the government and to respect constituted authority. Their move was interpreted as a stab in the back by the other members of the opposition, who rationalized that they had always suspected that the Beti among them were spying for their 'brother' in power (see Cameroon Post, 75, 20-27 June 1991, p. 1 and 71, 27-30 May 1991, p. 1).
10. Tchop Tchop, Candidat Unique.
11. J.-F. Bayart, L'Etut au Cameroun (Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, Paris 1979).
12. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, p. 8.
13. See the 18 January 1996 constitution (e.g. 'the State shall ensure the protection of minorities and shall preserve the rights of indigenous populations in accordance with the law').
14. Cf. P. Nchoji Nkwi and F. B. Nyamnjoh (eds) Regional Balance and National Integration in Cameroon: Lessons learned and the uncertain future (ASC/ICASSRT, Yaoundé, 1997); Collectif Changer le Cameroun (C3) and Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (eds), Ethnies et Développement National: Actes du colloque de Yaoundé 1993 (Edition C3 & Editions du CRAC, Yaoundé, 1994).
15. Cf. P. Nchoji Nkwi and F. B. Nyamnjoh (eds) Regional Balance and National Integration in Cameroon: Lessons learned and the uncertain future (ASC/ICASSRT, Yaoundé, 1997); Collectif Changer le Cameroun (C3) and Friedrich Eben Stiftung (eds), Ethnies et Développement National: Actes du colloque de Yaoundé 1993 (Edition C3 & Editions du CRAC, Yaoundé, 1994).
16. D. Eyoh, 'Through the prism of a local tragedy: Political liberalisation, regionalism and elite struggles for power in Cameroon', Africa, 68, 3 (1998), p. 347.
17. FUC, La Misere Intellectuelle au Cameroun (Centre Catholique Universitaire, Yaoundé, 1997).
18. V. Havel, Living in Truth (ed. by Jan Vladislav, Faber and Faber, London, 1986), p. 44.
19. Ibid., pp. 44-5.
20. A. Mbembe, 'Provisional notes on the postcolony', Africa, 62, 1 (1992), pp. 3-37.
21. F. B. Nyamnjoh and M. Rowlands, 'Elite associations and the politics of belonging in Cameroon', Africa, 68, 3 (1998), pp. 320-37.
22. See D. Eyoh, 'Conflicting narratives of anglophone protest and the politics of identity in Cameroon', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 16, 2 (1998), pp. 268-71; D. Eyoh, 'Through the prism', pp. 354-5.
23. See D. Eyoh, 'Conflicting narratives of anglophone protest and the politics of identity in Cameroon', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 16, 2 (1998), pp. 268-71; D. Eyoh, 'Through the prism', pp. 354-5.
24. L. M. Onguene Essono, 'La démocratie en chansons: Les Bikut-si du Cameroun', Politíque Africaine, 64 (1996), pp. 52-61.
25. Cf. Nyamnjoh and Rowlands, 'Elite associations', pp. 325-33.
26. P. Konings and F. B. Nyamnjoh, 'The anglophone problem in Cameroon', Journal of Modern African Studies, 35, 2 (1997), pp. 207-29.
27. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, p. 8.
28. See Nyamnjoh, The Cameroon G.C.E. Crisis, for examples.
29. J. A. Mope Simo, 'Land disputes and the impact on disintegration in contemporary Western Grassfields: Case study of the Ndop Plain Chiefdoms', in Nchoji Nkwi and Nyamnjoh, Regional Balance and National Integration, pp. 225-41.
30. C. G. Mbock (ed.), Cameroun: Pluralisme culturel et convivíalité (Les Editions Nouvelles du Sud, Ivry, 1996).
31. Although a 'moral necessity of being buried in the home' has been noted in many parts of Africa among elites who see burial in the city as 'the ultimate sign of social failure' (cf. P. Geschiere and J. Gugler, 'Introduction: The urban-rural connection: changing issues of belonging and identification', Africa, 68, 3 (1998), p. 311), in Cameroon there is no policy discouraging the practice for the benefit of national integration.
32. See excerpts of Professor Beltus I. Bejanga's interview with The Herald, Geschiere and Gugler, 'Introduction', pp. 313-14; see also Collectif Changer le Cameroun (C3) and Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (eds), Ethnies et Développement, pp. 121-7.
33. See excerpts of Professor Beltus I. Bejanga's interview with The Herald, Geschiere and Gugler, 'Introduction', pp. 313-14; see also Collectif Changer le Cameroun (C3) and Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (eds), Ethnies et Développement, pp. 121-7.
34. Cf. H. N. Eyoh, 'Building bridges: reconfiguring nationhood through culture', in Mbock (ed.), Cameroun, Pluralisme culturel et convivialité, pp. 161-2.
35. Hence books such as Communal Liberalism (Macmillan, London, 1987), written by President Biya himself and parroted by many.
36. See S. Ellis, 'Rumour and power in Togo', Africa, 63, 4 (1993), pp. 462-76; C.-M. Toulabor, 'Jeu de mots, jeu de vilains', Politique Africaine, 3 (1981), pp. 55-71.
37. See S. Ellis, 'Rumour and power in Togo', Africa, 63, 4 (1993), pp. 462-76; C.-M. Toulabor, 'Jeu de mots, jeu de vilains', Politique Africaine, 3 (1981), pp. 55-71.
38. J.-P. Diamani, 'L'humour politique au Phare du Zaire', Politique Africaine, 58 (1995), pp. 151-7.
39. S. Ellis, 'Tuning in to pavement radio', African Affairs, 88, 352 (1989), pp. 321-30.
40. A. Mbembe, 'The "thing" and its double in Cameroonian cartoons', in Karin Barber (ed.), Readings in African Popular Culture (James Currey, Oxford, 1997), p. 157.
41. Toulabor, 'Jeu de mots', p. 69.
42. F. B. Nyamnjoh, 'Political rumour in Cameroon', Cahier de l'UCAC, 2 (1997), pp. 93-105.
43. Toulabor, 'Jeu de mots'.
44. Mbembe, 'Provisional notes', pp. 3-37.
45. F. B. Nyamnjoh, 'The politics of development: modernity, power elities and popular disillusionment in Africa', in Jan Servaes and Rico Lie (eds), Media & Politics in Transition: Cultural identity in the age of globalization (ACCO Publishers, Leuven, 1997), pp. 195-212.
46. G. Ngwane, 'Cameroon: nation at a crossroads', West Africa (20-26 October 1997), p. 1678.
47. A verdict widely reported in Cameroon and throughout the world (see for example NRC Handelsblad, 23 September 1998), but vigorously contested by the Cameroonian government through its media and diplomatic services, although coming shortly after its own anti-corruption campaign was abruptly suspended.
48. Cf. Mbembe, 'Provisional notes', pp. 24-5; Bayart, The State in Africa, pp. 218-27.
49. Cf. Mbembe, 'Provisional notes', pp. 24-5; Bayart, The State in Africa, pp. 218-27.
50. R. A. Joseph, Radical Nationalism in Cameroun: Social origins of the UPC rebellion (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1977).
51. See, for example, A. Mbembe, 'Introduction: L'Etat-historien', in Achille Mbembe (ed.), Ruben Um Nyobè: Ecrits sous maquis (L'Harmattan, Paris, 1996), pp. 10-42.
52. Ngwane, 'Cameroon', pp. 1678-9.
53. C. Monga, 'Civil society and democratisation in francophone Africa', Journal of Modern African Studies, 33, 3 (1995), pp. 365-6.
54. Monga, 'Civil society', p. 371. According to The Herald (No. 279, 1996, p. 7) a disillusioned illiterate 'Takumbeng' woman who had seen leaders come and go, voted in and out, had this to say of the 1996 local elections: 'Candidates who stand for elections are like birds without feathers. We the voters give a candidate his feathers - each vote being another feather. When he has enough feathers off he flies and we never see him again.'
55. Monga, 'Civil society', p. 371. According to The Herald (No. 279, 1996, p. 7) a disillusioned illiterate 'Takumbeng' woman who had seen leaders come and go, voted in and out, had this to say of the 1996 local elections: 'Candidates who stand for elections are like birds without feathers. We the voters give a candidate his feathers - each vote being another feather. When he has enough feathers off he flies and we never see him again.'
56. Ngwane, 'Cameroon', pp. 1678-80.
57. Cf. Konings and Nyamnjoh, 'The anglophone problem'.
58. Havel, Living, pp. 36-122.
59. Mbembe, 'The "thing" ', pp. 153-4.
60. Cf. Libération, 14 and 15 November 1998, p. 18.
61. Cf. P. Songue, Prostitution en Afrique: L'example de Yaoundé (L'Harmattan, Paris, 1986); P. Beat-Songue, Sida & Prostitution au Cameroun (L'Harmattan, Paris, 1993).
62. Cf. P. Songue, Prostitution en Afrique: L'example de Yaoundé (L'Harmattan, Paris, 1986); P. Beat-Songue, Sida & Prostitution au Cameroun (L'Harmattan, Paris, 1993).
63. Cf. Mbembe, 'Provisional notes'.
64. M. Rowlands, 'Predicting personal success in Bamenda' (unpublished, 1994), pp. 1-20.
65. See M. Rowlands and J.-P. Warnier, 'Sorcery, power and the modern state in Cameron', Man, 23, 1 (1988), pp. 121-5; P. Geschiere, Sorcellerie et Politique en Afrique (Karthala, Paris, 1995); C. Fisiy and P. Geschiere, 'Witchcraft, violence and identity: different trajectories in postcolonial Cameroon', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds) Postcolonial Identities in Africa (Zed Books, London, 1996), pp. 193-7.
66. See M. Rowlands and J.-P. Warnier, 'Sorcery, power and the modern state in Cameron', Man, 23, 1 (1988), pp. 121-5; P. Geschiere, Sorcellerie et Politique en Afrique (Karthala, Paris, 1995); C. Fisiy and P. Geschiere, 'Witchcraft, violence and identity: different trajectories in postcolonial Cameroon', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds) Postcolonial Identities in Africa (Zed Books, London, 1996), pp. 193-7.
67. See M. Rowlands and J.-P. Warnier, 'Sorcery, power and the modern state in Cameron', Man, 23, 1 (1988), pp. 121-5; P. Geschiere, Sorcellerie et Politique en Afrique (Karthala, Paris, 1995); C. Fisiy and P. Geschiere, 'Witchcraft, violence and identity: different trajectories in postcolonial Cameroon', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds) Postcolonial Identities in Africa (Zed Books, London, 1996), pp. 193-7.
68. See Geschiere, Sorcellerie, pp. 7-35; Fisiy and Geschiere, 'Witchcraft, violence', p. 197.
69. See Geschiere, Sorcellerie, pp. 7-35; Fisiy and Geschiere, 'Witchcraft, violence', p. 197.
70. M. Angelou, Even the Stars Look Lonesome (Bantam Books, New York, 1997), p. 99.
71. Tchop Tchop, Candidat Unique.
72. See G. Owona, Un Bateau dans la Tourmente? Cameroun: Des raisons d'espérer (Editions Intermedia, Douala, 1995), pp. 67-87, for such a judgement of John Fru Ndi and the summary dismissal of the major opposition leaders by the author, a CPDM baron.
73. For a collection of Paul Biya's speeches on this theme, see for example, CPDM, Plaidoyer pour une Vraie Démocratie: Le grand périple provincial du Président Paul Biya (Août-Septembre-Octobre 1991).
74. Popular line from one of the songs of Jacky Ndoumbe, Cameroonian pop musician.