Pastoralism, patriarchy and history: Changing gender relations among Maasai in Tanganyika, 1890-1940

Journal of African History

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 41-64

  Hodgson, Dorothy L ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GENDER RELATIONS; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; PASTORALISM; WOMENS STATUS;

TANZANIA;

EID: 0033032756     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0021853798007397     Document Type: Article

References (177)

1. These exceptions include H. Moore, Space, Text and Gender : An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge, 1986); S. Hutchinson, Nuer Dilemmas : Coping with Money, War and the State (Berkeley, 1996); R. Oboler, Women, Power and Economic Change : The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford, 1985).
2. These exceptions include H. Moore, Space, Text and Gender : An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge, 1986); S. Hutchinson, Nuer Dilemmas : Coping with Money, War and the State (Berkeley, 1996); R. Oboler, Women, Power and Economic Change : The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford, 1985).
3. These exceptions include H. Moore, Space, Text and Gender : An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge, 1986); S. Hutchinson, Nuer Dilemmas : Coping with Money, War and the State (Berkeley, 1996); R. Oboler, Women, Power and Economic Change : The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford, 1985).
4. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo-Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
5. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
6. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
7. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
8. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
9. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
10. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
11. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
12. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
13. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
14. See, for example, J. H. Driberg, 'The status of women among Nilotics and Nilo- Hamitics', Africa, 5 (1932), 404-21; M. Dupire, 'The position of women in a pastoral society', in D. Paulme (ed.), Women of Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1963); G. Klima, 'Jural relations between the sexes among the Barabaig', Africa, 34 (1964), 9-20; Y. Elam, The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women (Manchester, 1973); G. Dahl, Subsistence and Society of Waso Boran (Stockholm, 1979); A. Beaman, 'Women's participation in pastoral economy: income maximization among the Rendile', Nomadic Peoples, 12 (1983), 20-25; J. Wienpahl, 'Women's roles in livestock production among the Turkana of Kenya', Research in Economic Anthropology, 6 (1984), 193-215; the special issue of Ethnos, 52 (1987) on pastoralist women, edited by Gudrun Dahl; the special issue of Human Ecology, 24 (1996) on gender and livestock in African production systems; and the valuable bibliographic materials compiled by the Institute of Development Anthropology, including M. Horowitz and F. Jowkar, Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Binghamton, 1992); and idem, Gender Relations of Pastoral/ Agropastoral Production : A Bibliography with Annotations (Binghamton, 1991).
15. H. Schneider, Livestock and Equality in East Africa : The Economic Bases for Social Structure (Bloomington, 1979), 82.
16. P. Spencer, The Maasai of Matapato : A Study of Rituals of Rebellion (Bloomington, 1979), 198- Ironically, Spencer provides evidence within his rich ethnography to contradict such claims.
17. Ibid. 25. More recently, Spencer co-authored a life history of a Maasai woman, Telelia, that provides important insights into the complex relationships of power, authority and respect between Maasai men and women : T. Chieni and P. Spencer, 'The world of Telelia: reflections of a Maasai woman in Matapato', in T. Spear and R. Waller (eds.), Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa (London 1993), 157-73.
18. Ibid. 25. More recently, Spencer co-authored a life history of a Maasai woman, Telelia, that provides important insights into the complex relationships of power, authority and respect between Maasai men and women : T. Chieni and P. Spencer, 'The world of Telelia: reflections of a Maasai woman in Matapato', in T. Spear and R. Waller (eds.), Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa (London 1993), 157-73.
19. M. Llewelyn-Davies, 'Women, warriors, and patriarchs', in S. Ortner and H. Whitehead (eds.), Sexual Meanings : The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality (Cambridge, 1981), 330-58.
20. J. Galaty, 'Pollution and pastoral antipraxis: the issue of Maasai inequality', American Ethnologist, 6 (1979), 803-16, especially 810-11.
21. Historians who have studied Maasai and other East African pastoralists have rarely concerned themselves with changes in pastoralist social organization, much less gender relations.
22. Bonnie Kettel's important paper on the decline of economic power among Tugen women in Kenya as a result of British development policies prompted some of my early thoughts on these questions. B. Kettel, 'The commoditization of women in Tugen (Kenya) social organization', in C. Robertson and I. Berger (eds.), Women and Class in Africa (New York, 1986), 47-61. Other scholars who have addressed aspects of Maasai gender relations include N. Kipuri, 'Maasai women in transition: class and gender in the transformation of a pastoral society' (Ph.D. thesis, Temple University, 1989); A. Talle, Women at a Loss : Changes in Maasai Pastoralism and their Effects on Gender Relations (Stockholm, 1988).
23. Bonnie Kettel's important paper on the decline of economic power among Tugen women in Kenya as a result of British development policies prompted some of my early thoughts on these questions. B. Kettel, 'The commoditization of women in Tugen (Kenya) social organization', in C. Robertson and I. Berger (eds.), Women and Class in Africa (New York, 1986), 47-61. Other scholars who have addressed aspects of Maasai gender relations include N. Kipuri, 'Maasai women in transition: class and gender in the transformation of a pastoral society' (Ph.D. thesis, Temple University, 1989); A. Talle, Women at a Loss : Changes in Maasai Pastoralism and their Effects on Gender Relations (Stockholm, 1988).
24. Bonnie Kettel's important paper on the decline of economic power among Tugen women in Kenya as a result of British development policies prompted some of my early thoughts on these questions. B. Kettel, 'The commoditization of women in Tugen (Kenya) social organization', in C. Robertson and I. Berger (eds.), Women and Class in Africa (New York, 1986), 47-61. Other scholars who have addressed aspects of Maasai gender relations include N. Kipuri, 'Maasai women in transition: class and gender in the transformation of a pastoral society' (Ph.D. thesis, Temple University, 1989); A. Talle, Women at a Loss : Changes in Maasai Pastoralism and their Effects on Gender Relations (Stockholm, 1988).
25. There is a vast feminist literature that debates the analytic usefulness of the concept of 'patriarchy' in describing and understanding gender inequality in Africa and elsewhere. Important works include : S. Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford, 1990); S. Stichler and J. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class : African Women in the Home and the Workforce (Boulder, CO, 1988); B. Agarwal (ed.), Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community, and Household in Modernising Asia (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1988); and E. Schmidt, 'Patriarchy, capitalism, and the colonial state in Zimbabwe', Signs, 16 (1991), 732-56.
26. There is a vast feminist literature that debates the analytic usefulness of the concept of 'patriarchy' in describing and understanding gender inequality in Africa and elsewhere. Important works include : S. Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford, 1990); S. Stichler and J. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class : African Women in the Home and the Workforce (Boulder, CO, 1988); B. Agarwal (ed.), Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community, and Household in Modernising Asia (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1988); and E. Schmidt, 'Patriarchy, capitalism, and the colonial state in Zimbabwe', Signs, 16 (1991), 732-56.
27. There is a vast feminist literature that debates the analytic usefulness of the concept of 'patriarchy' in describing and understanding gender inequality in Africa and elsewhere. Important works include : S. Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford, 1990); S. Stichler and J. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class : African Women in the Home and the Workforce (Boulder, CO, 1988); B. Agarwal (ed.), Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community, and Household in Modernising Asia (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1988); and E. Schmidt, 'Patriarchy, capitalism, and the colonial state in Zimbabwe', Signs, 16 (1991), 732-56.
28. There is a vast feminist literature that debates the analytic usefulness of the concept of 'patriarchy' in describing and understanding gender inequality in Africa and elsewhere. Important works include : S. Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy (Oxford, 1990); S. Stichler and J. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class : African Women in the Home and the Workforce (Boulder, CO, 1988); B. Agarwal (ed.), Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community, and Household in Modernising Asia (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1988); and E. Schmidt, 'Patriarchy, capitalism, and the colonial state in Zimbabwe', Signs, 16 (1991), 732-56.
29. For other examples of this in Africanist scholarship, see D. Hodgson and S. McCurdy (eds.), Wayward Wives, Misfit Mothers and Disobedient Daughters: 'Wicked' Women and the Reconfiguration of Gender in Africa, special issue of Canadian Journal of African Studies, 30 (1996); M. Grosz-Ngate and O. Kokole (eds.), Gendered Encounters : Challenging Cultural Boundaries and Social Hierarchies in Africa, (New York and London, 1997).
30. For other examples of this in Africanist scholarship, see D. Hodgson and S. McCurdy (eds.), Wayward Wives, Misfit Mothers and Disobedient Daughters: 'Wicked' Women and the Reconfiguration of Gender in Africa, special issue of Canadian Journal of African Studies, 30 (1996); M. Grosz-Ngate and O. Kokole (eds.), Gendered Encounters : Challenging Cultural Boundaries and Social Hierarchies in Africa, (New York and London, 1997).
31. For analyses of changing gender relations after the Second World War, see D. Hodgson, 'The politics of gender, ethnicity and "development": images, interventions and the reconfiguration of Maasai identities in Tanzania, 1916-1993' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, 1995); idem, 'Embodying the contradictions of modernity: gender and spirit possession among Maasai in Tanzania,' in Grosz-Ngate and Kokole, Gendered Encounters, 111-29; idem, '"My daughter... belongs to the government now": marriage, Maasai and the Tanzanian state', in Hodgson and McCurdy, Wayward Wives, 106-23.
32. For analyses of changing gender relations after the Second World War, see D. Hodgson, 'The politics of gender, ethnicity and "development": images, interventions and the reconfiguration of Maasai identities in Tanzania, 1916-1993' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, 1995); idem, 'Embodying the contradictions of modernity: gender and spirit possession among Maasai in Tanzania,' in Grosz-Ngate and Kokole, Gendered Encounters, 111-29; idem, '"My daughter... belongs to the government now": marriage, Maasai and the Tanzanian state', in Hodgson and McCurdy, Wayward Wives, 106-23.
33. For analyses of changing gender relations after the Second World War, see D. Hodgson, 'The politics of gender, ethnicity and "development": images, interventions and the reconfiguration of Maasai identities in Tanzania, 1916-1993' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, 1995); idem, 'Embodying the contradictions of modernity: gender and spirit possession among Maasai in Tanzania,' in Grosz-Ngate and Kokole, Gendered Encounters, 111-29; idem, '"My daughter... belongs to the government now": marriage, Maasai and the Tanzanian state', in Hodgson and McCurdy, Wayward Wives, 106-23.
34. Hodgson, 'Embodying the contradictions'; idem, 'Engendered encounters : men of the church and the church of women in Maasailand, Tanzania, 1950-1993', unpublished manuscript; idem, '"Once intrepid warriors": modernity and the production of Maasai masculinities', unpublished manuscript.
35. Hodgson, 'Embodying the contradictions'; idem, 'Engendered encounters : men of the church and the church of women in Maasailand, Tanzania, 1950-1993', unpublished manuscript; idem, '"Once intrepid warriors": modernity and the production of Maasai masculinities', unpublished manuscript.
36. Hodgson, 'Embodying the contradictions'; idem, 'Engendered encounters : men of the church and the church of women in Maasailand, Tanzania, 1950-1993', unpublished manuscript; idem, '"Once intrepid warriors": modernity and the production of Maasai masculinities', unpublished manuscript.
37. Hodgson, 'Politics of gender', especially chs. 7-9.
38. First published in 1904, Merker's Die Masai : Ethnographische Monographie eines ostafrikanischen Semitenvolkes (Berlin) was partly revised and expanded for a second edition in 1910. My references are to the 1910 edition, using an extremely accurate English translation (author unknown) in the Spiritan House Library in Arusha (Tanzania), verified and supplemented by the additional translation assistance of Lisa Vanderlinden. Merker's ethnography is particularly valuable because it offers a picture of Maasai life in Tanganyika not Kenya at the time. Other scholars of Maasai have also acknowledged the rich detail of his ethnography. See J. Bernsten, 'The enemy is us: eponymy in the historiography of the Maasai', History in Africa, 7 (1980), 1-21; R. Waller, 'Lords of East Africa: the Maasai in the mid-nineteenth century (c. 1840-c. 1885)' (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1978).
39. First published in 1904, Merker's Die Masai : Ethnographische Monographie eines ostafrikanischen Semitenvolkes (Berlin) was partly revised and expanded for a second edition in 1910. My references are to the 1910 edition, using an extremely accurate English translation (author unknown) in the Spiritan House Library in Arusha (Tanzania), verified and supplemented by the additional translation assistance of Lisa Vanderlinden. Merker's ethnography is particularly valuable because it offers a picture of Maasai life in Tanganyika not Kenya at the time. Other scholars of Maasai have also acknowledged the rich detail of his ethnography. See J. Bernsten, 'The enemy is us: eponymy in the historiography of the Maasai', History in Africa, 7 (1980), 1-21; R. Waller, 'Lords of East Africa: the Maasai in the mid-nineteenth century (c. 1840-c. 1885)' (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1978).
40. First published in 1904, Merker's Die Masai : Ethnographische Monographie eines ostafrikanischen Semitenvolkes (Berlin) was partly revised and expanded for a second edition in 1910. My references are to the 1910 edition, using an extremely accurate English translation (author unknown) in the Spiritan House Library in Arusha (Tanzania), verified and supplemented by the additional translation assistance of Lisa Vanderlinden. Merker's ethnography is particularly valuable because it offers a picture of Maasai life in Tanganyika not Kenya at the time. Other scholars of Maasai have also acknowledged the rich detail of his ethnography. See J. Bernsten, 'The enemy is us: eponymy in the historiography of the Maasai', History in Africa, 7 (1980), 1-21; R. Waller, 'Lords of East Africa: the Maasai in the mid-nineteenth century (c. 1840-c. 1885)' (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1978).
41. Merker provides detailed descriptions of these sartorial and linguistic markings in Die Masai, chs. 3, 8, 16.
42. Merker, however, claims that girls circumcised between the beginning of the circumcision of one age-grade of males and the beginning of the next were considered members of the first age-grade: Merker, Die Masai, 72.
43. Ibid. 71.
44. Ibid. 120.
45. Ibid. 49.
46. Some Maasai men traveled even further afield, appearing in the Berlin Exhibition of 1886: ibid. 119.
47. Ibid. 27-28.
48. Ibid. 27.
49. Ibid. 60, 45.
50. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
51. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
52. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
53. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
54. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
55. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
56. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
57. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
58. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
59. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
60. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
61. These additional accounts include O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle : Reisen und Forschungen der Massai-Expedition des deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite in den Jahren 1891-93 (Berlin, 1894); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa, (2nd ed., London, 1969 [1860]); J. P. Farler, 'Native routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and the Victoria Nyanza', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 730-42, 776 (map); T. Wakefield, 'Native routes through the Masai country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 742-7; idem, 'The Wakwafi raid on the district near Mombasa', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 289-90; J. T. Last, 'The Masai people and country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 4 (1882), 224-26; idem, 'A visit to the Masai people living beyond the borders of Nguru country', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 5 (1883), 517-43, 568 (map); J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968 [1885]); and H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition : A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886). As John Bernsten cautions, these early missionary and traveler reports must be used carefully, since many accounts are based on second-hand information reported by Swahili traders, non-Maasai Africans or coastal missionaries. Furthermore, of those authors who did visit Maasailand, few spoke Maa and most stayed for only a very short time (e.g. three days in the case of Last): Bernsten, 'The Enemy is us'. Most scholars agree that while the majority of Maa-speakers were originally agro-pastoralists, cultivating sorghum and millet and raising cattle and smallstock, in time a group emerged with an increasing specialization in pastoralism and a heightened sense of their distinct identity based on their mode of production. J. Sutton, 'Becoming Maasailand,' in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 38-60; J. Galaty, 'Maasai expansion and the new East African pastoralism', in Spear and Waller, Being Maasai, 61-86.
62. A. Hollis, The Masai : Their Language and Folklore (London, 1905), 303.
63. Merker, Die Masai, 30; Thomson, Through Masai Land, 259-60; H. Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London 1977), 112-26.
64. Merker, Die Masai, 30; Thomson, Through Masai Land, 259-60; H. Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London 1977), 112-26.
65. Merker, Die Masai, 30; Thomson, Through Masai Land, 259-60; H. Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London 1977), 112-26.
66. Merker, Die Masai, 30; Thomson, Through Masailand, 259, 260; Baumann, Durch Massailand, 242; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404; T. Spear, Mountain Farmers (Oxford, 1997), 41.
67. Merker, Die Masai, 30; Thomson, Through Masailand, 259, 260; Baumann, Durch Massailand, 242; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404; T. Spear, Mountain Farmers (Oxford, 1997), 41.
68. Merker, Die Masai, 30; Thomson, Through Masailand, 259, 260; Baumann, Durch Massailand, 242; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404; T. Spear, Mountain Farmers (Oxford, 1997), 41.
69. Merker, Die Masai, 30; Thomson, Through Masailand, 259, 260; Baumann, Durch Massailand, 242; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404; T. Spear, Mountain Farmers (Oxford, 1997), 41.
70. Merker, Die Masai, 30; Thomson, Through Masailand, 259, 260; Baumann, Durch Massailand, 242; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404; T. Spear, Mountain Farmers (Oxford, 1997), 41.
71. Thomson, Through Masailand, 93.
72. Farler, 'Native routes', 736; Krapf, Travels, 364; Merker, Die Masai, 212-3. Wakefield describes several trade routes based on information provided to him by caravan leaders: T. Wakefield, 'Routes of native caravans from the coast to the interior of eastern Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 40 (1870), 303-39; idem, 'Native routes'; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404.
73. Farler, 'Native routes', 736; Krapf, Travels, 364; Merker, Die Masai, 212-3. Wakefield describes several trade routes based on information provided to him by caravan leaders: T. Wakefield, 'Routes of native caravans from the coast to the interior of eastern Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 40 (1870), 303-39; idem, 'Native routes'; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404.
74. Farler, 'Native routes', 736; Krapf, Travels, 364; Merker, Die Masai, 212-3. Wakefield describes several trade routes based on information provided to him by caravan leaders: T. Wakefield, 'Routes of native caravans from the coast to the interior of eastern Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 40 (1870), 303-39; idem, 'Native routes'; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404.
75. Farler, 'Native routes', 736; Krapf, Travels, 364; Merker, Die Masai, 212-3. Wakefield describes several trade routes based on information provided to him by caravan leaders: T. Wakefield, 'Routes of native caravans from the coast to the interior of eastern Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 40 (1870), 303-39; idem, 'Native routes'; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404.
76. Farler, 'Native routes', 736; Krapf, Travels, 364; Merker, Die Masai, 212-3. Wakefield describes several trade routes based on information provided to him by caravan leaders: T. Wakefield, 'Routes of native caravans from the coast to the interior of eastern Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 40 (1870), 303-39; idem, 'Native routes'; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404.
77. Farler, 'Native routes', 736; Krapf, Travels, 364; Merker, Die Masai, 212-3. Wakefield describes several trade routes based on information provided to him by caravan leaders: T. Wakefield, 'Routes of native caravans from the coast to the interior of eastern Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 40 (1870), 303-39; idem, 'Native routes'; Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 404.
78. Merker, Die Masai, 136.
79. For a compelling account of the power and authority contemporary pastoral women achieve through being mothers, see B. Bianco, 'Women and things : Pokot motherhood as political destiny', American Ethnologist, 18 (1991), 770-85.
80. Merker, Die Masai, 220.
81. Ibid. 44.
82. Ibid. 30.
83. Ibid. 25.
84. There is a large feminist literature on the domestic/public dichotomy. Some authors see the distinction as a central explanatory principle for the 'universal' subordination of women, who were always confined to the less prestigious domestic sphere. J. Collier and M. Rosaldo, 'Politics and gender in simple societies', in S. Ortner and H. Whitehead (eds.), Sexual Meanings (Cambridge, 1981). Such an explanation assumes that such distinctive spheres are universally present and unchanging through history. For critiques of such 'universalist' arguments, see S. Yanagisako 'Family and household: the analysis of domestic groups', Annual Review of Anthropology 8 (1979), 161-205; J. Comaroff, 'Sui genderis: feminism, kinship theory and structural "domains"', in J. Collier and S. Yanagisako (eds.), Gender and Kinship (Stanford, 1987), 53-85.
85. There is a large feminist literature on the domestic/public dichotomy. Some authors see the distinction as a central explanatory principle for the 'universal' subordination of women, who were always confined to the less prestigious domestic sphere. J. Collier and M. Rosaldo, 'Politics and gender in
86. There is a large feminist literature on the domestic/public dichotomy. Some authors see the distinction as a central explanatory principle for the 'universal' subordination of women, who were always confined to the less prestigious domestic sphere. J. Collier and M. Rosaldo, 'Politics and gender in simple societies', in S. Ortner and H. Whitehead (eds.), Sexual Meanings (Cambridge, 1981). Such an explanation assumes that such distinctive spheres are universally present and unchanging through history. For critiques of such 'universalist' arguments, see S. Yanagisako 'Family and household: the analysis of domestic groups', Annual Review of Anthropology 8 (1979), 161-205; J. Comaroff, 'Sui genderis: feminism, kinship theory and structural "domains"', in J. Collier and S. Yanagisako (eds.), Gender and Kinship (Stanford, 1987), 53-85.
87. Merker, Die Masai, 207.
88. The most thorough study of Maasai women's religious expression and participation is J. Voshaar, 'Tracing God's walking stick in Maa; a study of Maasai society, culture and religion' (Ph.D thesis, Catholic University of Nijmegen, 1979). See also D. Hodgson, 'Engendered encounters'.
89. The most thorough study of Maasai women's religious expression and participation is J. Voshaar, 'Tracing God's walking stick in Maa; a study of Maasai society, culture and religion' (Ph.D thesis, Catholic University of Nijmegen, 1979). See also D. Hodgson, 'Engendered encounters'.
90. Merker, Die Masai, 52, 56, 59, 104, 208-9. A woman from each group would exchange an unweaned child with one another, briefly nurse the infant and then return him or her. Ibid. 102-3.
91. Merker, Die Masai, 52, 56, 59, 104, 208-9. A woman from each group would exchange an unweaned child with one another, briefly nurse the infant and then return him or her. Ibid. 102-3.
92. Ibid. 120.
93. For a provocative analysis of the centrality of women and female-controlled spaces to Marakwet life, see Moore, Space. Other accounts of the centrality of the female- dominated household to pastoral life include G. Dahl,' Mats and milk pots: the domain of Borana women', in A. Jacobson-Widding and W. Van Beek (eds.), The Creative Communion : African Folk Models of Fertility and the Regeneration of Life (Stockholm, 1990), 129-36; M. de Bruijn, 'The hearthold in pastoral Fulbe society, central Mali: social relations, milk and drought', Africa, 67 (1997), 625-51.
94. For a provocative analysis of the centrality of women and female-controlled spaces to Marakwet life, see Moore, Space. Other accounts of the centrality of the female-dominated household to pastoral life include G. Dahl,' Mats and milk pots: the domain of Borana women', in A. Jacobson-Widding and W. Van Beek (eds.), The Creative Communion : African Folk Models of Fertility and the Regeneration of Life (Stockholm, 1990), 129-36; M. de Bruijn, 'The hearthold in pastoral Fulbe society, central Mali: social relations, milk and drought', Africa, 67 (1997), 625-51.
95. For a provocative analysis of the centrality of women and female-controlled spaces to Marakwet life, see Moore, Space. Other accounts of the centrality of the female- dominated household to pastoral life include G. Dahl,' Mats and milk pots: the domain of Borana women', in A. Jacobson-Widding and W. Van Beek (eds.), The Creative Communion : African Folk Models of Fertility and the Regeneration of Life (Stockholm, 1990), 129-36; M. de Bruijn, 'The hearthold in pastoral Fulbe society, central Mali: social relations, milk and drought', Africa, 67 (1997), 625-51.
96. Thomson, Through Masailand, 89.
97. Baumann, Durch Masailand, 165. See also Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 425; Last, 'A visit', 525-6; Thomson, Through Masai Land, 95, 160.
98. Baumann, Durch Masailand, 165. See also Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 425; Last, 'A visit', 525-6; Thomson, Through Masai Land, 95, 160.
99. Baumann, Durch Masailand, 165. See also Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 425; Last, 'A visit', 525-6; Thomson, Through Masai Land, 95, 160.
100. Baumann, Durch Masailand, 165. See also Johnston, Kilima-Njaro, 425; Last, 'A visit', 525-6; Thomson, Through Masai Land, 95, 160.
101. For a detailed analysis of these crises, see R. Waller, 'Emutai: crisis and response in Maasailand, 1883-1902', in D. Johnson and D. Anderson (eds.), The Ecology of Survival : Case Studies from Northeast African History (Boulder, 1988). See also J. Koponen, 'Population: a dependent variable', in G. Maddox, J. Giblin and I. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 19-42, esp. 24-5.
102. For a detailed analysis of these crises, see R. Waller, 'Emutai: crisis and response in Maasailand, 1883-1902', in D. Johnson and D. Anderson (eds.), The Ecology of Survival : Case Studies from Northeast African History (Boulder, 1988). See also J. Koponen, 'Population: a dependent variable', in G. Maddox, J. Giblin and I. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 19-42, esp. 24-5.
103. R. Waller, 'Emutai', 101-5. Cf. A. Jacobs, 'The traditional political organization of the pastoral Maasai' (Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1965), 96; J. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), 124-5; and Koponen, 'Population', 593. See also Merker, Die Masai, 271.
104. R. Waller, 'Emutai', 101-5. Cf. A. Jacobs, 'The traditional political organization of the pastoral Maasai' (Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1965), 96; J. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), 124-5; and Koponen, 'Population', 593. See also Merker, Die Masai, 271.
105. R. Waller, 'Emutai', 101-5. Cf. A. Jacobs, 'The traditional political organization of the pastoral Maasai' (Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1965), 96; J. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), 124-5; and Koponen, 'Population', 593. See also Merker, Die Masai, 271.
106. R. Waller, 'Emutai', 101-5. Cf. A. Jacobs, 'The traditional political organization of the pastoral Maasai' (Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1965), 96; J. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), 124-5; and Koponen, 'Population', 593. See also Merker, Die Masai, 271.
107. R. Waller, 'Emutai', 101-5. Cf. A. Jacobs, 'The traditional political organization of the pastoral Maasai' (Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1965), 96; J. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), 124-5; and Koponen, 'Population', 593. See also Merker, Die Masai, 271.
108. Baumann describes how Maasai parents would offer him their children in exchange for meat. When Baumann refused, the adults abandoned their children in the camp. 'Soon our caravan was swarming with Masai children and it was touching to see how the porters cared for the little urchins. I employed some of the stronger men and women as cowherds and thus saved quite a number from death by starvation'. Durch Masailand, 32. Waller, 'Emutai', 94-7.
109. Baumann describes how Maasai parents would offer him their children in exchange for meat. When Baumann refused, the adults abandoned their children in the camp. 'Soon our caravan was swarming with Masai children and it was touching to see how the porters cared for the little urchins. I employed some of the stronger men and women as cowherds and thus saved quite a number from death by starvation'. Durch Masailand, 32. Waller, 'Emutai', 94-7.
110. Maasai prostitutes were reported to be working in Nairobi at this time : L. White, The Comforts of Home : Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi (Chicago, 1990), 34.
111. Merker, Die Masai, 10, 30.
112. For an exhaustive study of the German colonial period in Tanganyika, see J. Koponen, Development for Exploitation : German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884-1914 (Helsinki, 1994). See also J. IIiffe, Tanganyika Under German Rule 1905-1912 (Cambridge, 1969).
113. For an exhaustive study of the German colonial period in Tanganyika, see J. Koponen, Development for Exploitation : German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884-1914 (Helsinki, 1994). See also J. IIiffe, Tanganyika Under German Rule 1905-1912 (Cambridge, 1969).
114. The small number is in itself a testament to their inability to effectively carry out their duties. Merker, Die Masai, 271; Great Britain Admiralty, A Handbook of German East Africa (London, c. 1915); Koponen, Development, 648-9.
115. The small number is in itself a testament to their inability to effectively carry out their duties. Merker, Die Masai, 271; Great Britain Admiralty, A Handbook of German East Africa (London, c. 1915); Koponen, Development, 648-9.
116. The small number is in itself a testament to their inability to effectively carry out their duties. Merker, Die Masai, 271; Great Britain Admiralty, A Handbook of German East Africa (London, c. 1915); Koponen, Development, 648-9.
117. Merker, Die Masai, 10, 32, 45, 46-7.
118. Ibid. 46.
119. Hodgson, 'Embodying', 113.
120. These shifts are described in great detail elsewhere, but for the purposes of the present argument, a summary will suffice. See Hodgson, 'Politics of gender', chs. 3-5.
121. Browne (Provincial Commissioner [PC]/Northern Province [NP]), 'Memorandum on the formation of the Masai reserve and the administration of the Masai, 1916-1925', 15 Mar. 1926, Tanzania National Archives (Dar es Salaam) [TNA] 17/37.
122. In this paper, I capitalize 'Laibon' to distinguish the major Laibons recognized by all Maasai as supreme ritual figures from the many minor laibons (most from the Inkidong'i subclan) who practiced (and still practice) lesser forms of divination and prophecy.
123. Browne, 'Memorandum'. Who comprised this delegation and why they wanted to bring the Laibon is unclear. Perhaps they wanted yet one more barrier between themselves and the administration, or they wished to dilute the power of the headmen.
124. Mitchell (Acting [Ag]PC/NP) to Chief Secretary [CS]/Dar, 16 Mar. 1927, TNA 17/43.
125. Murrells reminded the PC that 'the Masai are as a general rule, respecters of age, and that many of their difficulties are settled by them, in council with elders, not necessarily Aigwenak, by discussion and agreement'. Murrells (District Officer [DO]/ Maasai District [MaD]) to PC/NP, 28 Feb. 1927, TNA 69/55/MS.
126. Browne (PC/NP) to CS/Dar, 15 Mar. 1926, TNA 17/37; Mitchell (AG PC/NP) to CS/Dar, 16 Mar. 1927, TNA 17/43.
127. Page-Jones (DO/MaD) to PC/NP, 5 Dec. 38, TNA 69/47/MS/z.
128. Murrells (DO/MaD) to PC/NP, 16 Sept. 1930, TNA 69/47/MS.
129. Other examples of the collaborative relationships between African elder men and male colonial administrators are detailed in M. Chanock, 'Making customary law: men, women and courts in colonial Northern Rhodesia', in M. J. Hay and M. Wright (eds.), African Women and the Law : Historical Perspectives (Boston, 1982); idem, Law Custom and Social Order : The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia (Cambridge, 1985); M. Mbilinyi, 'Runaway wives: forced labour and forced marriage in colonial Rungwe', International Journal of Sociology of Law, 16 (1988), 1-29.
130. Other examples of the collaborative relationships between African elder men and male colonial administrators are detailed in M. Chanock, 'Making customary law: men, women and courts in colonial Northern Rhodesia', in M. J. Hay and M. Wright (eds.), African Women and the Law : Historical Perspectives (Boston, 1982); idem, Law Custom and Social Order : The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia (Cambridge, 1985); M. Mbilinyi, 'Runaway wives: forced labour and forced marriage in colonial Rungwe', International Journal of Sociology of Law, 16 (1988), 1-29.
131. Other examples of the collaborative relationships between African elder men and male colonial administrators are detailed in M. Chanock, 'Making customary law: men, women and courts in colonial Northern Rhodesia', in M. J. Hay and M. Wright (eds.), African Women and the Law : Historical Perspectives (Boston, 1982); idem, Law Custom and Social Order : The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia (Cambridge, 1985); M. Mbilinyi, 'Runaway wives: forced labour and forced marriage in colonial Rungwe', International Journal of Sociology of Law, 16 (1988), 1-29.
132. For a study of contemporary attempts by male elders to ally themselves with the state in controlling their 'disobedient' daughters, see Hodgson, 'My daughter'.
133. Murrells (DO/MaD) to PC/NP, 1 May 1930, TNA 69/47/MS.
134. Ibid.
135. See, for example, M. Mallet, A White Woman Among the Masai (London, 1923), especially 96-9.
136. As Jane Fosbrooke proudly told her family and others, she was only the second 'wife' to live in Maasailand. Wives were not allowed to accompany their husbands assigned to Maasailand until 1934. As it was, in this period colonial officers had to complete one full tour and be hired permanently before they could marry and bring their wives back to Tanganyika. Tawney interview with J. Fosbrooke; J. Fosbrooke letters; both in J. Fosbrooke deposit, Rhodes House Library [RHL] Mss. Afr. s. 1906. I am grateful to the late Henry Fosbrooke for allowing me to read and selectively quote from Jane's letters.
137. The rest of the letter is missing. 'Concerning Loliondo', Sept. 1934, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1906.
138. J. Fosbrooke, 'Loliondo', 29 Oct. 34, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1906. Fosbrooke later reports a similar encounter by a delegation of women demanding money from another 'wife', Trude Rowe.
139. See, for example, Browne (PC/NP) to CS/Dar, 15 Mar. 1926, TNA 17/37.
140. For analyses of middle and upper class Victorian gender ideologies that informed British administrators of the time, see M. Poovey, Uneven Developments : The Ideological Work of Gender in mid-Victorian England (Chicago, 1988); L. Davidoff, Worlds Between : Historical Perspectives on Gender and Class (New York, 1995).
141. For analyses of middle and upper class Victorian gender ideologies that informed British administrators of the time, see M. Poovey, Uneven Developments : The Ideological Work of Gender in mid-Victorian England (Chicago, 1988); L. Davidoff, Worlds Between : Historical Perspectives on Gender and Class (New York, 1995).
142. The passage in Britain of the Colonial Development Act of 1929 marked the ascendancy of British interest in the economic 'development 'of the colonies over prior concerns with protecting native interests and preserving their 'traditional' forms of economic production, social organization and political self-governance. For an overview of British development policies during this period, see S. Constantine, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy, 1914-1940 (London, 1994).
143. Murrells (DO/MaD) to PC/NP, 7 Aug. 1931, TNA 69/47/MS.
144. Baxter (DO/MaD) to PC/NP, 7 Aug. 1931, TNA 69/47/MS.
145. 'Memo on Liability for Poll Tax, Masai District, 1935'; Page-Jones (DO/MaD) to PC/NP, 12 Feb. 1939; both in TNA 17/H/1/1.
146. Kennedy (CS/Dar) to all PCs, Confidential Circular No. 10971/149, 'Native Taxation', 9 June 1937, TNA Seer 10971. See also Kennedy (CS/Dar) to all PCs, Confidential Circular No. 10971/91, 'Native Taxation,' 11 Jan. 1937, TNA Seer 10971. The plural wives tax was finally discontinued in 1950. 'Provincial Commissioner's Address to the Ol Kiama (Masai Council) on 19th Sept. 1949', TNA (Arusha Branch) 284/0.
147. Hodgson, 'Politics of gender', esp. chs. 4-5.
148. See the Tanganyika Blue Books from 1927-1948. Administrators justified the high rate by characterizing the large herds of these 'cattle-keeping people' as great wealth: 'as a mass the Maasai are very wealthy'. Murrells (DO/MaD) to PC/NP, 7 Aug. 1931, TNA 69/47/MS. See also Page-Jones (DO/MaD) to PC/NP, 12 Feb. 1939, TNA 17/H/1/1.
149. Baxter (DO/MaD), 'Trade in Masai', 17 Aug. 1933, Masai District Book [MDB]/ 242.
150. See Hodgson, 'Politics of gender', ch. 2.
151. Baxter (DO/MaD), 'Trade in Masai', 17 Aug. 33, MDB/242.
152. Baxter (DO/MaD), 'Trade in Masai', 17 Aug. 1933, MDB/242-245; typed addenda, 20 Nov. 1933 and 25 May 1944, MDB/244, 247; Baxter (DO/MaD), 'Trade in Loliondo', 7 Feb. 1935, Arusha Region Book [ARB]/259-260. See, generally, documents in the file 'Rights of occupancy over trading plots - Mondul', TNA 69/207/MS/17; and 'Establishment of trading centres', TNA 17/218.
153. Baxter (DO/MaD), 'Trade in Masai', MDB/244-46. The excerpt is awkwardly worded because it is taken from Baxter's written notes.
154. Baxter (DO/MaD), 'Loliondo Veterinary Matters', ARB/261-262.
155. Baxter (DO/MaD), 'Trade in Masai', MDB/242.
156. J. Fosbrooke, 'Maasai women and their work', The Crown Colonist, 14 (1944), 314.
157. For analysis of the two other important development interventions during this period, water 'conservation' programs (later called water 'development'), and education see Hodgson, 'Politics of gender', chs. 3-4.
158. Lowe (Senior Veterinary Officer [SVO]/NP) to PC/NP, 2 Nov. 1927, TNA 17/37.
159. The few European veterinary staff had minimal interaction with Masai; instead, they relied on the 'veterinary guards' of the African Native Veterinary Service to implement their policies. Their enforcement abilities were severely limited by their lack of personnel and resources, the vastness of Maasailand, the lack of roads (and vehicles, initially) and mobility of Maasai and their herds even within the expanded reserve. In 1919, the veterinary staff responsible for northern Maasailand consisted of 1 (British) Veterinary Officer, two (European) Stock Inspectors, and 8 (African) veterinary guards. By 1926, the staff had increased to 1 Veterinary Officer, 2-3 Stock Inspectors, and 27 Veterinary Guards, whose responsibilities now included coverage of southern Maasailand. Hayes (SVO/NP) to PC/NP, 4 Mar. 1926, 17/37.
160. See Hodgson, 'Politics of gender'; R. Waller and K. Homewood, 'Elders and experts: contesting veterinary knowledge in a pastoral community', in A. Cunningharn and B. Andrews (eds.), Contested Knowledge : Reactions to Western Medicine in the Modern Period (Manchester, forthcoming).
161. See Hodgson, 'Politics of gender'; R. Waller and K. Homewood, 'Elders and experts: contesting veterinary knowledge in a pastoral community', in A. Cunningharn and B. Andrews (eds.), Contested Knowledge : Reactions to Western Medicine in the Modern Period (Manchester, forthcoming).
162. My emphases. Browne (PC/NP) to CS/Dar re: 'Masai Administration', 15 Mar. 1926, TNA 17/37.
163. Hayes (SVO/NP) to PC/NP, 4 Mar. 1926, TNA 17/27.
164. The first formal stock market was organized in Arusha in 1923 with sales twice a week; other markets soon started at Kibaya and Mbulu. Total sales for 1926 were, however, minimal. 1925 Arusha District Annual Report, 10, 22. TNA Seer 1733/1: 36, 1926 Veterinary Dept. Annual Report.
165. Governor, Minute, 22 Aug. 1926, TNA Seer 7077/3; W. Beinart, 'Soil erosion, conservationism, and ideas about development: a southern African exploration', Journal of Southern African Studies, 11 (1984), 52-83; D. Anderson, 'Depression, dustbowl, demography and drought: the colonial state and soil conservation in East Africa during the 19305', African Affairs, 82 (1984), 321-43.
166. Governor, Minute, 22 Aug. 1926, TNA Seer 7077/3; W. Beinart, 'Soil erosion, conservationism, and ideas about development: a southern African exploration', Journal of Southern African Studies, 11 (1984), 52-83; D. Anderson, 'Depression, dustbowl, demography and drought: the colonial state and soil conservation in East Africa during the 19305', African Affairs, 82 (1984), 321-43.
167. Veterinary Department, Tanganyika Territory, 1926 Annual Report (Dar es Salaam, 1926).
168. Northern Province, Tanganyika Territory, 1954 Annual Report (Dar es Salaam, 1954).
169. Ibid.
170. Clarke (DC/MaD), 'Masai Development Plan', 19 Apr. 51.
171. Northern Province, Tanganyika Territory, 1955 Annual Report (Dar es Salaam, 1955).
172. Hodgson, 'Politics of gender'; idem, 'Taking stock: ethnohistorical perspectives on state control, ethnic identity, and pastoralist development in Tanganyika, 1930-1961', paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association (1997); idem, 'Images and interventions: on the "problems" of "pastoralist" development', in D. Anderson and V. Broch-Due,'The Poor are not us' : Poverty and Pastoralism in Eastern Africa (London, forthcoming); K. Homewood, 'Development, demarcation and ecological outcomes in Maasailand', Africa, 65 (1995), 331-50.
173. Hodgson, 'Politics of gender'; idem, 'Taking stock: ethnohistorical perspectives on state control, ethnic identity, and pastoralist development in Tanganyika, 1930-1961', paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association (1997); idem, 'Images and interventions: on the "problems" of "pastoralist" development', in D. Anderson and V. Broch-Due,'The Poor are not us' : Poverty and Pastoralism in Eastern Africa (London, forthcoming); K. Homewood, 'Development, demarcation and ecological outcomes in Maasailand', Africa, 65 (1995), 331-50.
174. Hodgson, 'Politics of gender'; idem, 'Taking stock: ethnohistorical perspectives on state control, ethnic identity, and pastoralist development in Tanganyika, 1930-1961', paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association (1997); idem, 'Images and interventions: on the "problems" of "pastoralist" development', in D. Anderson and V. Broch-Due,'The Poor are not us' : Poverty and Pastoralism in Eastern Africa (London, forthcoming); K. Homewood, 'Development, demarcation and ecological outcomes in Maasailand', Africa, 65 (1995), 331-50.
175. Hodgson, 'Politics of gender'; idem, 'Taking stock: ethnohistorical perspectives on state control, ethnic identity, and pastoralist development in Tanganyika, 1930-1961', paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association (1997); idem, 'Images and interventions: on the "problems" of "pastoralist" development', in D. Anderson and V. Broch-Due,'The Poor are not us' : Poverty and Pastoralism in Eastern Africa (London, forthcoming); K. Homewood, 'Development, demarcation and ecological outcomes in Maasailand', Africa, 65 (1995), 331-50.
176. Hodgson, 'Embodying'.
177. B. Kettel, 'Commoditization of women', 49.