Growth hormone in obesity

International Journal of Obesity

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 260-271

  Scacchi, M ^a   Pincelli, A I ^a   Cavagnini, F ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

^b ISTITUTO AUXOLOGICO ITALIANO   (Italy)

Author keywords

GH IGF I axis; Obesity

Indexed keywords

ARGININE; ATENOLOL; CLONIDINE; FATTY ACID; FENFLURAMINE; GALANIN; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLUCOSE; GROWTH HORMONE; GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING FACTOR; HEXARELIN; HISTIDYL DEXTRO TRYPTOPHYLALANYLTRYPTOPHYL DEXTRO PHENYLALANYLLYSINAMIDE; IBUTAMOREN; INSULIN; LEPTIN; LEVODOPA; LIGAND; NALOXONE; NALTREXONE; PEPTIDE; PYRIDOSTIGMINE; RECOMBINANT GROWTH HORMONE; SOMATOMEDIN BINDING PROTEIN 1; SOMATOMEDIN BINDING PROTEIN 2; SOMATOMEDIN BINDING PROTEIN 3; SOMATOMEDIN C;

ADIPOCYTE; ARTHRALGIA; CALORIC RESTRICTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIETARY INTAKE; EDEMA; FATTY ACID BLOOD LEVEL; HALF LIFE TIME; HORMONE RELEASE; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOPHYSIS; HYPOTHALAMUS; LEAN BODY WEIGHT; LIPOLYSIS; METABOLISM; MUSCLE STIFFNESS; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAT; REVIEW; RODENT; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

RODENTIA;

EID: 0033026902     PISSN: 03070565     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800807     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. 1 Health implications of obesity. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement. Ann Intern Med 1985; 103: 1073-1077.
2. 2 National Center for Health Statistics. Plan and Operation of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Department of Health and Human Services Publication No (PHS) 94-1308 (Vital and Health Statistics; Series 1, No. 32). National Center for Health Statistics: Hyattsville MD, 1994.
3. 3 Iranmanesh A, Lizarralde G, Veldhuis JD. Age and relative adiposity are specific negative determinants of the frequency and amplitude of growth hormone (GH) secretory bursts and the half-life of endogenous GH in healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 73: 1081-1088.
4. 4 Veldhuis JD, Liem AY, South S, Weltman A, Weltman J, Clemmons DA, Abbott R, Mulligan T, Johnson ML, Pincus S, Straume M, Iranmanesh A. Differential impact of age, sex steroid hormones, and obesity in basal versus pulsatile growth hormone secretion in men as assessed in an ultra-sensitive chemiluminescence assay. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 3209-3222.
5. 5 Weltman A, Weltman JY, Hartman ML, Abbott RD, Rogol AD, Evans WS, Veldhuis JD. Relationship between age, percentage body fat, fitness, and 24-hour growth hormone release in healthy young adults: effects of gender. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78: 543-548.
6. 6 Veldhuis JD, Iranmanesh A, Ho KKY, Waters MJ, Johnson ML, Lizarralde G. Dual defects in pulsatile growth hormone secretion and clearance subserve the hyposomatotropism of obesity in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 72: 51-59.
7. 7 Tomita H, Ogawa M, Kamijo T, Mori O, Ishikawa E, Mohri Z, Murakami Y. A highly sensitive sandwich enzyme immunoassay of urinary growth hormone in children with short stature, Turner's syndrome, and simple obesity. Acta Endocrinol 1989; 121: 513-519.
8. 8 Sartorio A, Conti A, Ferrero S. Low urinary GH levels in normal statured obese children. Acta Paediatr 1996; 85: 894-898.
9. 9 Topper E, Gil-Ad I, Bauman B, Josefsberg Z, Laron Z. Plasma growth hormone response to oral clonidine as compared to insulin hypoglycemia in obese children and adolescents. Horm Metab Res 1984; 16: 127-130.
10. 10 Kopelman PG, Noonan K, Goulton R, Forrest AJ. Impaired growth hormone response to growth hormone releasing factor and insulin-hypoglycaemia in obesity. Clin Endocrinol 1985; 23: 87-94.
11. 11 Finer N, Price P, Grossman A, Besser GM. The effect of enkephalin analogue on pituitary hormone release in human obesity. Horm Metab Res 1987; 19: 68-70.
12. 12 Cordido F, Dieguez C, Casanueva FF. Effect of central cholinergic neurotransmission enhancement by pyridostigmine on the growth hormone secretion elicited by clonidine, arginine, or hypoglycemia in normal and obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 70: 1361-1370.
13. 13 Loche S, Cella SG, Boghen M, Vannelli S, Benso L, Müller EE, Corda R, Pintor C. The effect of galanin on baseline and GHRH-induced growth hormone secretion in obese children. Clin Endocrinol 1990; 33: 187-192.
14. 14 Lee EJ, Kim KR, Lee KM, Lim SK, Lee HC, Lee JH, Lee DJ, Huh KB. Reduced growth hormone response to L-dopa and pyridostigmine in obesity. Int J Obes 1994; 18: 465-468.
15. 15 Muruais C, Cordido F, Morales MJ, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C. Corticosteroid-induced growth hormone secretion in normal and obese subjects. Clin Endocrinol 1991; 35: 485-490.
16. 16 Pineda J, Dieguez C, Casanueva FF, Martul P. Decreased growth hormone response to dexamethasone stimulation test in obese children. Acta Paediatric 1994; 83: 103-105.
17. 17 Garlaschi C, Di Natale B, Del Guercio MJ, Caccamo A, Gargantini L, Chiumello G. Effect of physical exercise on secretion of growth hormone, glucagon, and cortisol in obese and diabetic children. Diabetes 1975; 24: 758-761.
18. 18 Ferini-Strambi L, Franceschi M, Cattaneo AG, Smirne S, Calori G, Caviezel F. Sleep-related growth hormone secretion in human obesity: effect of dietary treatment. Neuroendocrinology 1991; 54: 412-415.
19. 19 Altomonte L, Zoli A, Alessi F, Ghirlanda G, Manna R, Greco AV. Effect of fenfluramine on growth hormone and prolactin secretion in obese subjects. Horm Res 1987; 27: 190-194.
20. 20 Bernini GP, Argenio GF, Vivaldi MS, Del Corso C, Birindelli R, Luisi M, Franchi F. Impaired growth hormone response to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in obese patients: restoration blocked by ritanserin after fenfluramine administration. Clin Endocrinol 1990; 32: 453-459.
21. 21 Plewe G, Schneider U, Krause U, Beyer J. Naloxone increases the response of growth hormone and prolactin to stimuli in obese humans. J Endocrinol Invest 1987; 10: 137-141.
22. 22 Williams T, Berelowitz M, Joffe SN, Thorner MO, Rivier J, Vale W, Frohman LA. Impaired growth hormone responses to growth hormone-releasing factor in obesity. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 1403-1407.
23. 23 Kopelman PG, Noonan K. Growth hormone response to low dose intravenous injections of growth hormone releasing factor in obese and normal weight women. Clin Endocrinol 1986; 24: 157-164.
24. 24 Davies RR, Turner SG, Cook D, Alberti KGMM, Johnston DG. The response of obese subjects to continuous infusion of human pancreatic growth hormone-releasing factor 1-44. Clin Endocrinol 1985; 23: 521-525.
25. 25 Ghigo E, Procopio M, Maccario M, Bellone E, Arvat E, Campana S, Boghen MF, Camanni F. Repetitive GHRH administration fails to increase the response to GHRH in obese subjects. Horm Metab Res 1993; 25: 305-308.
26. 26 Villa P, Fulghesu AM, De Marinis L, Valle D, Mancini A, Pavone V, Caruso A, Lanzone A. Impact of long-term naltrexone treatment on growth hormone and insulin secretion in hyperandrogenic and normal obese patients. Metabolism 1997; 46: 538-543.
27. 27 Tagliaferri M, Scacchi M, Dubini A, Cavagnini F. Effect of acute administration of pyridostigmine and pirenzepine on ACTH, growth hormone and cortisol secretion in Cushing's and in obese patients. Neuroendocrinol Lett 1994; 16: 145-150.
28. 28 Cordido F, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C. Cholinergic receptor activation by pyridostigmine restores growth hormone (GH) responsiveness to GH-releasing hormone administration in obese subjects: evidence for hypothalamic somatostatinergic participation in the blunted GH release of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 68: 290-293.
29. 29 Ghigo E, Mazza E, Corrias A, Imperiale E, Goffi S, Arvat E, Bellone J, De Sanctis C, Müller EE, Camanni F. Effect of cholinergic enhancement by pyridostigmine on growth hormone secretion in obese adults and children. Metabolism 1989; 38: 631-633.
30. 30 Loche S, Pintor C, Cappa M, Ghigo E, Puggioni R, Locatelli V, Müller EE. Pyridostigmine counteracts the blunted growth hormone response to growth hormone-releasing hormone of obese children. Acta Endocrinol 1989; 120: 624-628.
31. 31 Loche S, Pintus S, Carta D, Muntoni AC, Congiu G, Civolani P, Pintor C. The effect of atenolol on the growth hormone response to growth hormone-releasing hormone in obese children. Acta Endocrinol 1992; 126: 124-127.
32. 32 Ghigo E, Procopio M, Boffano GM, Arvat E, Valente F, Maccario M, Mazza E, Camanni F. Arginine potentiates but does not restore the blunted growth hormone response to growth hormone-releasing homone in obesity. Metabolism 1992; 41: 560-563.
33. 33 Procopio M, Invitti C, Maccario M, Grottoli S, Cavagnini F, Camanni F, Ghigo E. Effect of arginine and pyridostigmine on the GHRH-induced GH rise in obesity and Cushing's syndrome. Int J Obes 1995; 19: 108-112.
34. 34 Maccario M, Valetto MR, Savio P, Aimaretti G, Baffoni C, Procopio M, Grottoli S, Oleandri SE, Arvat E, Ghigo E. Maximal secretory capacity of somatotrope cells in obesity: comparison with GH deficiency. Int J Obes 1997; 21: 27-32.
35. 35 Ghigo E, Arvat E, Muccioli G, Camanni F. Growth hormone-releasing peptides. Eur J Endocrinol 1997; 136: 445-460.
36. 36 Cordido F, Peñalva A, Dieguez C, Casanueva FF. Massive growth hormone (GH) discharge in obese subjects after the combined administration of GH-releasing hormone and GHRP-6: evidence for a marked somatotroph secretory capability in obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 76: 819-823.
37. 37 Loche S, Cambiaso P, Carta D, Setzu S, Imbimbo BP, Borrelli P, Pintor C, Cappa M. The growth hormone-releasing activity of hexarelin, a new synthetic hexapeptide, in short normal and obese children and in hypopituitary subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 674-678.
38. 38 Grottoli S, Maccario M, Procopio M, Oleandri SE, Arvat E, Gianotti L, Deghenghi R, Camanni F, Ghigo E. Somatotrope responsiveness to hexarelin, a synthetic hexapeptide, is refractory to the inhibitory effect of glucose in obesity. Eur J Endocrinol 1996; 135: 678-682.
39. 39 Kirk SE, Gertz BJ, Schneider SH, Hartman ML, Pezzoli SS, Wittereich JM, Krupa DA, Seibold JR, Thorner MO. Effect of obesity and feeding on the growth hormone (GH) response to the GH secretagogue L-692,429 in young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 1154-1159.
40. 40 Cordido F, Peñalva A, Peino R, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C. Effect of combined administration of growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone, GH-releasing peptide-6, and pyridostigmine in normal and obese subjects. Metabolism 1995; 44: 745-748.
41. 41 Postel-Vinay MC, Saab C, Gourmelen M. Nutritional status and growth hormone-binding protein. Horm Res 1995; 44: 177-181.
42. 42 Frystyk J, Vestbo E, Skjærbæk C, Mogensen CE, Orskov H. Free insulin-like growth factors in human obesity. Metabolism 1995; 44 (Suppl. 10): 37-44.
43. 43 Nam SY, Lee EJ, Kim KR, Cha BS, Song YD, Lim SK, Lee HC, Huh KB. Effect of obesity on total and free insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1, and their relationship to IGF-binding protein (BP)-1, IGFBP-2, IGFBP-3, insulin, and growth hormone. Int J Obes 1997; 21: 355-359.
44. 44 Minuto F, Barreca A, Del Monte P, Fortini P, Resentini M, Morabito F, Giordano G. Spontaneous growth hormone and somatomedin-C/insulin-like growth factor-I secretion in obese subjects during puberty. J Endocrinol Invest 1988; 11: 489-495.
45. 45 Skaggs SR, Crist DM. Exogenous human growth hormone reduces body fat in obese women. Horm Res 1991; 35: 19-24.
46. 46 Argente J, Caballo N, Barrios V, Pozo J, Muñoz MT, Chowen JA, Hernandez M. Multiple endocrine abnormalities of the growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor axis in prepubertal children with exogenous obesity: effect of short-and long-term weight reduction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 2076-2083.
47. 47 Van Vliet G, Bosson D, Rummens E, Robyn C, Wolter R. Evidence against growth hormone-releasing factor deficiency in children with idiopathic obesity. Acta Endocrinol 1986; 279: 403-410.
48. 48 Loche S, Cappa M, Borrelli P, Faedda A, Crinò A, Cella SG, Corda R, Müller EE, Pintor C. Reduced growth hormone response to growth hormone-releasing hormone in children with simple obesity: evidence for somatomedin-C mediated inhibition. Clin Endocrinol 1987; 27: 145-153.
49. 49 Hochberg Z, Hertz P, Colin V, Ish-Shalom S, Yeshurun D, Youdim MBH, Amit T. The distal axis of growth hormone (GH) in nutritional disorders: GH-binding protein, insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), and IGF-I receptors in obesity and anorexia nervosa. Metabolism 1992; 41: 106-112.
50. 50 Marin P, Kvist H, Lindstedt G, Sjöström L, Björntorp P. Low concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-I in abdominal obesity. Int J Obes 1993; 17: 83-89.
51. 51 Rasmussen MH, Frystyk J, Andersen T, Breum L, Christiansen JS, Hilsted J. The impact of obesity, fat distribution, and energy restriction on insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), IGF-binding protein-3, insulin, and growth hormone. Metabolism 1994; 43: 315-319.
52. 52 Weaver JU, Holly JM, Kopelman PG, Noonan K, Giadom CG, White N, Virdee S, Wass JA. Decreased sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP-1) in extreme obesity. Clin Endocrinol 1990; 33: 415-422.
53. 53 Peter MA, Winterhalter KH, Boni-Schnetzler M, Froesch ER, Zapf J. Regulation of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and IGF-binding proteins by growth hormone in rat white adipose tissue. Endocrinology 1993; 133: 2624-2631.
54. 54 Schwander JC, Hauri C, Zapf J, Froesch ER. Synthesis and secretion of insulin-like growth factor and its binding protein by the perfused rat liver: dependence on growth hormone status. Endocrinology 1983; 113: 297-305.
55. 55 Fagin KD, Lackey SL, Reagan CR, DiGirolamo M. Specific binding of growth hormone by rat adipocytes. Endocrinology 1980; 107: 608-615.
56. 56 Gosteli-Peter MA, Winterhalter KH, Schmid C, Froesch ER, Zapf J. Expression and regulation of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and IGF-binding protein messenger ribonucleic acid levels in tissues of hypophysectomized rats infused with IGF-I and growth hormone. Endocrinology 1994; 135: 2558-2567.
57. 57 Zapf J, Schoenle E, Jagars G, Sand I, Grunwald J, Froesch ER. Inhibition of the action of nonsuppressible insulin-like activity on isolated rat fat cells by binding to its carrier protein. J Clin Invest 1979; 63: 1077-1084.
58. 58 King GL, Kahn CR, Rechler MM, Nissley SP. Direct demonstration of separate receptors for growth and metabolic activities of insulin and multiplication-stimulating activity (an insulinlike growth factor) using antibodies to the insulin receptor. J Clin Invest 1980; 66: 130-140.
59. 59 Kratzsch J, Dehmel B, Pulzer F, Keller E, Englaro P, Blum WF, Wabitsch M. Increased serum GHBP levels in obese pubertal children and adolescents: relationship to body composition, leptin and indicators of metabolic disturbances. Int J Obes 1997; 21: 1130-1136.
60. 60 Lönnqvist F, Arner P, Nordfors L, Schalling M. Overexpression of the obese (ob) gene in adipose tissue of human obese subjects. Nat Med 1995; 1: 950-953.
61. 61 Hamilton BS, Paglia D, Kwan AYM, Deitel M. Increased obese mRNA expression in omental fat cells from massively obese humans. Nat Med 1995; 1: 953-956.
62. 62 Pelleymounter MA, Cullen MJ, Baker MB, Hecht R, Winters D, Boone T, Collins F. Effects of the obese gene product on body weight regulation in ob/ob mice. Science 1995; 269: 540-543.
63. 63 Halaas JL, Gajiwali KS, Maffei M, Cohen SL, Chait BT, Rabinowitz D, Lallone RL, Burley SK, Fiedman JM. Weight reducing effects of the plasma protein encoded by the obese gene. Science 1995; 269: 543-546.
64. 64 Stephens TW, Basinski M, Bristow PK, Bue Vallenskey JM, Burgett SG, Craft L, Hale J, Hoffmann J, Hsiung HM, Kriauciunas A, MacKellar W, Rostek PR, Schoner B, Smith D, Tinsley FC, Zhang XY, Heiman M. The role of neuropeptide Y in the antiobesity action of the obese gene product. Nature 1995; 377: 530-532.
65. 65 Schwartz MW, Baskin DG, Bukowki TR, Kujiper JL, Fuster D, Lasser G, Prunkard DE, Porte D, Woods SC, Seeley RJ, Weigle DS. Specificity of leptin action on elevated blood glucose and hypothalamic neuropeptide Y gene expression in ob/ob mice. Diabetes 1996; 45: 531-535.
66. 66 Cusin I, Rohner-Jeanrenaud F, Stricker-Krongrad A, Jeanrenaud B. The weight-reducing effect of an intracerebroventricular bolus injection of leptin in genetically obese fa/fa rats: reduced sensitivity compared with lean animals. Diabetes 1996; 45: 1446-1450.
67. 67 Hwa JJ, Ghibaudi L, Compton D, Fwzi AB, Strader CD. Intracerebroventricular injection of leptin increases thermogenesis and mobilizes fat metabolism in ob/ob mice. Horm Metab Res 1996; 28: 659-663.
68. 68 Stehling O, Doring H, Ertl J, Preibisch G, Schmidt I. Leptin reduces juvenile fat stores by altering the circadian cycle of energy expenditure. Am J Physiol 1996; 271: R1770-R1774.
69. 69 Considine RV, Sinha HK, Heiman ML, Kriancinnas A, Stephens TW, Myce MR, Ohamesian JP, Marco CC, MKee LJ, Bauer TL, Caro JF. Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese women. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 292-295.
70. 70 Leal-Cerro A, Considine RV, Peino R, Venegas E, Astorga R, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C. Serum immunoreactive-leptin levels are increased in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Horm Metab Res 1996; 28: 711-713.
71. 71 Florkowski CM, Collier GR, Zimmet PZ, Livesey JH, Espiner EA, Donald RA. Low-dose growth hormone replacement lowers plasma leptin and fat stores without affecting body mass index in adults with growth hormone deficiency. Clin Endocrinol 1996; 45: 769-773.
72. 72 Fisker S, Vahl N, Hansen TB, Jorgensen JOL, Hagen C, Orskov H, Christiansen JS. Serum leptin is increased in growth hormone-deficient adults: relationship to body composition and effects of placebo-controlled growth hormone therapy for 1 year. Metabolism 1997; 46: 812-817.
73. 73 Mantzoros C, Flier JS, Lesem MD, Brewerton TD, Jimerson DC. Cerebrospinal fluid leptin in anorexia nervosa: correlation with nutritional status and potential role in resistance to weight gain. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 1845-1851.
74. 74 Casanueva FF, Dieguez C, Popovic V, Peino R, Considine RV, Caro JF. Serum immunoreactive leptin concentrations in patients with anorexia nervosa before and after partial weight recovery. Biochem Mol Med 1997; 60: 116-120.
75. 75 Ho KK, O'Sullivan AJ, Hoffman DM. Metabolic actions of growth hormone in man. Endocr J 1996; 43: S57-S63.
76. 76 Snyder DK, Clemmons DR, Underwood LE. Treatment of obese, diet-restricted subjects with growth hormone for 11 weeks: effects on anabolism, lipolysis and body composition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 67: 54-61.
77. 77 Al-Shoumer KA, Page B, Thomas E, Murphy M, Beshyah SA, Johnston DG. Effects of four years' treatment with biosynthetic human growth hormone (GH) on body composition in GH-deficient hypopituitary adults. Eur J Endocrinol 1996; 135: 559-567.
78. 78 Hardie LF, Guilhot N, Trayurn P. Regulation of leptin production in cultured mature white adipocytes. Horm Metab Res 1996; 28: 685-689.
79. 79 Carro E, Señaris R, Considine RV, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C. Regulation of in vivo growth hormone secretion by leptin. Endocrinology 1997; 138: 2203-2206.
80. 80 Dieguez C. Leptin: a new GH secretagogue. [Abstract]. International symposium on growth hormone Basic Aspects and new clinical applications. 1998, Lilly Press, Marbella, Spain.
81. 81 Quintela M, Senaris R, Heiman HL, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C. Leptin inhibits in vitro hypothalamic somatostatin secretion and somatostatin mRNA levels. Endocrinology 1997; 138: 5641-5644.
82. 82 Donahoo WT, Jensen DR, Yost TL, Eckel RH. Isoproterenol and somatostatin decrease plasma leptin in humans: a novel mechanism regulating leptin secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 4139-4143.
83. 83 Bonora E, Moghetti P, Zenere M, Querena M, Tosi F, Corgnati A, Muggeo M. Plasma concentrations of growth hormone during hyperglycemic clamp with or without somatostatin infusion in obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 70: 1732-1734.
84. 84 Maccario M, Procopio M, Grottoli S, Oleandri SE, Razzore P, Camanni F, Ghigo E. In obesity the somatotrope response to either growth hormone-releasing hormone or arginine is inhibited by somatostatin or pirenzepine but not by glucose. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 3774-3778.
85. 85 Polonsky KS, Given BD, van Cauter E. Twenty-four-hour profiles and pulsatile patterns of insulin secretion in normal and obese subjects. J Clin Invest 1988; 81: 442-448.
86. 86 Klauser R, Prager R, Schernthaner G, Olefsky JM. Contribution of postprandial insulin and glucose to glucose disposal in normal and insulin-resistant obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 73: 758-764.
87. 87 Diamond MP, Hallarman L, Starick-Zych K, Jones TW, Connolly-Howard M, Tamborlane WV, Sherwin RS. Suppression of counterregulatory hormone response to hypoglycemia by insulin per se. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 72: 1388-1390.
88. 88 Lanzi R, Manzoni MF, Andreotti AC, Malighetti ME, Bianchi E, Piceni Sereni L, Caumo A, Luzi L, Pontiroli AE. Evidence for an inhibitory effect of physiological levels of insulin on the growth hormone (GH) response to GH-releasing hormone in healthy subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 2239-2243.
89. 89 Schwartz MW, Figlewicz DP, Baskin DG, Woods SC, Porte DJ. Insulin in the brain: a hormonal regulator of energy balance. Endocr Rev 1992; 13: 387-414.
90. 90 Baskin DG, Porte DJ, Guest K, Dorsa DM. Regional concentrations of insulin in the rat brain. Endocrinology 1983; 112: 898-903.
91. 91 Folli F, Bonfanti L, Renard E, Kahn CR, Merighi A. Insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) distribution in the rat central nervous system. J Neurosci 1994; 14: 6412-6422.
92. 92 McCaleb ML, Myers RD. 2-Deoxy-D-glucose and insulin modify release of norepinephrine from rat hypothalamus. Am J Physiol 1982; 242: R596-R603.
93. 93 Sauter A, Goldstein M, Engel J, Ueta K. Effect of insulin on central catecholamines. Brain Res 1983; 260: 330-333.
94. 94 Chihara K, Kodama H, Kaji H, Kita T, Kashio Y, Okimura Y, Abe H, Fujita T. Augmentation by propranolol of growth hormone-releasing hormone-(1-44)-NH2-induced growth hormone release in normal short and normal children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61: 229-233.
95. 95 Rosenfeld RG, Ceda G, Cutler CW, Dollar LA, Huffman AR. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor (somatomedin) receptors on cloned rat pituitary tumor cells. Endocrinology 1985; 117: 2008-2016.
96. 96 Yamashita S, Melmed S. Effects of insulin on rat anterior pituitary cells. Inhibition of growth hormone secretion and mRNA levels. Diabetes 1986; 35: 440-447.
97. 97 Cohen P, Rosenfeld RG. The IGF axis. In: Rosenbloom AL (ed). Human growth hormone, basic and scientific aspects. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 1995, 43-58.
98. 98 Kelley KM, Oh Y, Gargosky SE, Gucev Z, Matsumoto T, Hwa V, Ng L, Simpson DM, Rosenfeld RG. Insulinlike growth factor-binding proteins (IGFBPs) and their regulatory dynamics. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 1996; 28: 619-637.
99. 99 Maccario M, Grottoli S, Razzore P, Procopio M, Oleandri SE, Ciccarelli E, Camanni F, Ghigo E. Effects of glucose load and/or arginine on insulin and growth hormone secretion in hyperprolactinemia and obesity. Eur J Endocrinol 1996; 135: 205-210.
100. 100 Chalew SA, Lozano RA, Armour KM, Kowarski AA. Reduction of plasma insulin levels does not restore integrated concentration of growth hormone to normal in obese children. Int J Obes 1992; 16: 459-463.
101. 101 Casanueva FF, Villanueva L, Dieguez C, Diaz Y, Cabranes JA, Szoke B, Scanlon MF, Schally AV, Fernandez-Cruz A. Free fatty acids block growth hormone (GH) releasing hormone-stimulated GH secretion in man directly at the pituitary. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65: 634-642.
102. 102 Imaki T, Shibasaki T, Masuda A, Hotta M, Yamauchi N, Demura H, Shizume K, Wakabayashi I, Ling N. The effect of glucose and free fatty acids on growth hormone (GH)-releasing factor-mediated GH secretion in rats. Endocrinology 1986; 118: 2390-2394.
103. 103 Opie LH, Walfish PG. Plasma free fatty acid concentration in obesity. N Engl J Med 1963; 268: 757-760.
104. 104 Golay A, Swislocki ALM, Chen YDI, Jaspan JB, Reaven GM. Effect of obesity on ambient plasma glucose, free fatty acid, insulin, growth hormone, and glucagon concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 63: 481-484.
105. 105 Andreotti AC, Lanzi R, Manzoni MF, Caumo A, Moreschi A, Pontiroli AE. Acute pharmacologic blockade of lipolysis normalizes nocturnal growth hormone levels and pulsatility in obese subjects. Metabolism 1994; 43: 1207-1213.
106. 106 Lee EJ, Nam SY, Kim KR, Lee HC, Cho JH, Nam MS, Song DY, Lim SK, Huh KB. Acipimox potentiates growth hormone (GH) response to GH-releasing hormone with or without pyridostigmine by lowering serum free fatty acid in normal and obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 2495-2498.
107. 107 Pontiroli AE, Manzoni MF, Malighetti ME, Lanzi R. Restoration of growth hormone (GH) response to GH-releasing hormone in elderly and obese subjects by acute pharmacological reduction of plasma free fatty acids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 3998-4001.
108. 108 Cordido F, Peino R, Penalva A, Alvarez CV, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C. Impaired growth hormone secretion in obese subjects is partially reversed by acipimox-mediated plasma free fatty acid depression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 914-918.
109. 109 Maccario M, Procopio M, Grottoli S, Oleandri SE, Boffano GM, Taliano M, Camanni F, Ghigo E. Effects of acipimox, an antilipolytic drug, on the growth hormone (GH) response to GH-releasing hormone alone or combined with arginine in obesity. Metabolism 1996; 45: 342-346.
110. 110 Nam SY, Lee EJ, Kim KR, Lee HC, Nam MS, Cho JH, Huh KB. Long-term administration of acipimox potentiates growth hormone response to growth hormone-releasing hormone by decreasing serum free fatty acid in obesity. Metabolism 1996; 45: 594-597.
111. 111 Kostyo JL. Rapid effects of growth hormone on amino acid transport and protein synthesis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1968; 148: 389-407.
112. 112 Cuttler L. The regulation of growth hormone secretion. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1996; 25: 541-571.
113. 113 Müller EE, Brambilla F, Cavagnini F, Peracchi M, Panerai A. Slight effect of L-tryptophan on growth hormone release in normal human subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1974; 39: 1-5.
114. 114 Alba-Roth J, Müller OA, Schopohl J, vonWerder K. Arginine stimulates growth hormone secretion by suppressing endogenous somatostatin secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 67: 1186-1189.
115. 115 Kelijman M, Frohman LA. Enhanced growth hormone (GH) responsiveness to GH-releasing hormone after dietary manipulation in obese and nonobese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 66: 489-494.
116. 116 Rasmussen MH, Juul A, Kjems LL, Skakkebæk NE, Hilsted J. Lack of stimulation of 24-hour growth hormone release by hypocaloric diet in obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 796-801.
117. 117 Tanaka K, Inoue S, Numata K, Okazaki H, Nakamura S, Takamura Y. Very-low-calorie diet-induced weight reduction reverses impaired growth hormone secretion response to growth hormone-releasing hormone, arginine, and L-dopa in obesity. Metabolism 1990; 39: 892-896.
118. 118 Rasmussen MH, Hvidberg A, Juul A, Main KM, Gotfredsen A, Skakkbæk NE. Massive weight loss restores 24-hour growth hormone release profiles and serum insulin-like growth factor-I levels in obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 1407-1415.
119. 119 Rasmussen MH, Ho KKY, Kjems L, Hilsted J. Serum growth hormone-binding protein in obesity: effect of a short-term, very low calorie diet and diet-induced weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 1519-1524.
120. 120 Thissen JP, Ketelslegers JM, Underwood LE. Nutritional regulation of the insulin-like growth factors. Endocr Rev 1994; 15: 80-101.
121. 121 Brunani A, Invitti C, Dubini A, Piccoletti R, Bendinell P, Maroni P, Pezzoli G, Ramella G, Calogero A, Cavagnini F. Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma concentrations of SRIH, beta-endorphin, CRH, NPY and GHRH in obese and normal weight subjects. Int J Obes 1995; 19: 17-21.
122. 122 Tannenbaum GS, Lapointe M, Gurd W, Finkelstein JA. Mechanisms of impaired growth hormone secretion in genetically obese Zucker rats: roles of growth hormone-releasing factor and somatostatin. Endocrinology 1990; 127: 3087-3095.
123. 123 Ahmad I, Steggles AW, Finkelstein JA. In situ hybridization study of obesity-associated alteration in growth hormone mRNA levels. Int J Obes 1992; 16: 435-441.
124. 124 Ahmad I, Finkelstein JA, Downs TR, Frohman LA. Obesity-associated decrease in growth hormone-releasing hormone gene expression: a mechanism for reduced growth hormone mRNA levels in genetically obese Zucker rats. Neuroendocrinology 1993; 58: 332-337.
125. 125 Loche S, Balzano S, Bozzola M, Moretta A, Pintus S, Faedda A, Muntoni A, Carta D, Pintor C. Secretion of growth hormone releasing hormone in obese children. J Endocrinol Invest 1992; 15: 453-457.
126. 126 Clemmons DR, Snyder DK, Williams R, Underwood LE. Growth hormone administration conserves lean body mass during dietary restriction in obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 64: 878-883.
127. 127 Bistrian BR, Winterer J, Blackburn GL, Young V, Sherman M. Effect of a protein sparing diet and a brief fast on nitrogen metabolism in mildly obese subjects. J Lab Clin Med 1977; 89: 1030-1035.
128. 128 Snyder DK, Clemmons DR, Underwood LE. Dietary carbohydrate content determines responsiveness to growth hormone in energy restricted humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 69: 745-752.
129. 129 Clemmons DR, Klibanski A, Underwood LE, McArthur JW, Ridgway EC, Beitins IZ, Van Wyk JJ. Reduction of plasma immunoreactive somatomedin-C during fasting in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 53: 1247-1250.
130. 130 Merimee TJ, Zapf J, Froesch ER. Insulin-like growth factors in the fed and fasted states. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982; 55: 999-1002.
131. 131 Snyder DK, Underwood LE, Clemmons DR. Anabolic effects of growth hormone in obese diet-restricted subjects are dose dependent. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52: 431-437.
132. 132 Drent ML, Wever LDV, Arder HJ, van der Veen EA. Growth hormone administration in addition to a very low calorie diet and an exercise program in obese subjects. Eur J Endocrinol 1995; 132: 565-572.
133. 133 Tagliaferri M, Scacchi M, Pincelli AI, Berselli ME, Silvestri P, Montesano A, Ortolani S, Dubini A, Cavagnini F. Metabolic effects of biosynthetic growth hormone treatment in severely energy-restricted obese women. Int J Obes 1998; 22: 836-841.
134. 134 Snyder DK, Underwood LE, Clemmons DR. Persistent lipolytic effect of exogenous growth hormone during caloric restriction. Am J Med 1995; 98: 129-134.
135. 135 Richelsen B, Pedersen SB, Borglum JD, Moller Pedersen T, Jorgensen J, Jorgensen JO. Growth hormone treatment of obese women for 5 week: effect on body composition and adipose tissue LPL activity. Am J Physiol 1994; 266: E211-E216.
136. 136 Johannsson G, Marin P, Lönn L, Ottoson M, Stenlöf K, Björntorp P, Sjöström L, Bengtsson BA. Growth hormone treatment of abdominal obese men reduces abdominal fat mass, improves glucose and lipoprotein metabolism, and reduces diastolic blood pressure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 727-734.
137. 137 Jorgensen JO, Pedersen SB, Borglum J, Moller N, Schmitz O, Christiansen JS, Richelsen B. Fuel metabolism, energy expenditure, and thyroid function in growth hormone-treated obese women: a double-blind placebo controlled study. Metabolism 1994; 43: 872-877.
138. 138 Peters JP. Consequences of accelerated gain and growth hormone administration for lipid metabolism in growing beef steers. J Nutr 1986; 116: 2490-2503.
139. 139 Jorgensen JOL, Moller J, Laursen T, Orskov H, Christiansen JS, Weeke J. Growth hormone administration stimulates energy expenditure and extrathyroidal conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine in a dose-dependent manner and suppresses circadian thyrotrophin levels: studies in GH-deficient adults. Clin Endocrinol 1994; 41: 609-614.
140. 140 Chong PK, Jung RT, Scrimgeour CM, Rennie MJ, Paterson CR. Energy expenditure and body composition in growth hormone deficient adults on exogenous growth hormone. Clin Endocrinol 1994; 40: 103-110.
141. 141 Snel YEM, Doerga ME, Brummer RJM, Zelissen PMJ, Zonderland ML, Koppeschaar HPF. Resting metabolic rate, body composition and related hormonal parameters in growth hormone-deficient adults before and after growth hormone replacement therapy. Eur J Endocrinol 1995; 133: 445-450.
142. 142 Svensson J, Lonn L, Jansson JO, Murphy G, Wyss D, Krupa D, Cerchio K, Polvino W, Gertz B, Bosaeus I, Sjöström L, Bengtsson BA. Two-month treatment of obese subjects with the oral growth hormone (GH) secretagogue MK-677 increases GH secretion, fat-free mass, and energy expenditure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83: 362-369.
143. 143 Morikawa M, Nixon T, Green H. Growth hormone and the adipose conversion of 3T3 cells. Cell 1982; 29: 783-789.
144. 144 Hauner H, Loffler G. Adipogenic factors in human serum promote the adipose conversion of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts. Int J Obes 1986; 10: 323-330.
145. 145 Doglio A, Dani C, Grimaldi P, Ailhaud G. Growth hormone regulation of the expression of differentiation-dependent genes inpreadipocyte Ob1771 cells. Biochem J 1986; 238: 123-129.
146. 146 Doglio A, Dani C, Grimaldi P, Ailhaud G. Growth hormone stimulates c-fos gene expression by means of protein kinase C without increasing inositol lipid turnover. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 1148-1152.
147. 147 Doglio A, Dani C, Fredrikson G, Grimaldi P, Ailhaud G. Acute regulation of insulin-like growth factor-I gene expression by growth hormone during adipose cell differentiation. EMBO J 1987; 6: 4011-4016.
148. 148 Smith PJ, Wise LS, Berkowitz R, Wan C, Rubin CS. Insulin-like growth factor-I is an essential regulator of the differentiation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes. J Biol Chem 1988; 263: 9402-9408.
149. 149 Jensen MD, Haymond MW, Rizza RA, Cryer PE, Miles JM. Influence of body fat distribution on free fatty acid metabolism in obesity. J Clin Invest 1989; 83: 1168-1173.
150. 150 Boden G. Role of fatty acids in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and NIDDM. Diabetes 1997; 46: 3-10.