Skirting the issue: Women and international health in historical perspective

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 89, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 399-407

  Birn, Anne Emanuelle ^a  

^a NEW SCHOOL FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FEMALE; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH PROGRAM; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; HUMAN; MEXICO; MIDWIFE; NURSE; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW;

EID: 0033017494     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.89.3.399     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Lesley Doyal, "The Politics of Women's Health: Setting a Global Agenda," International Journal of Health Services 26 (1996): 47-65, and What Makes Women Sick: Gender and the Political Economy of Health (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995); World Health, Special Issue on Women and Health (September 1995); Adrienne Germaine and Rachel Kyte, The Cairo Consensus: The Right Agenda for the Right Time (New York, NY: International Women's Health Coalition, 1995); Gita Sen, Adrienne Germaine, and Lincoln Chen, Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment, and Human Rights (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1994); Noeleen Heyzer, The Balancing Act: Population, Development, and Women in an Era of Globalization, International Lecture Series on Population Issues (New Delhi, India: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, August 29, 1996).
2. Lesley Doyal, "The Politics of Women's Health: Setting a Global Agenda," International Journal of Health Services 26 (1996): 47-65, and What Makes Women Sick: Gender and the Political Economy of Health (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995); World Health, Special Issue on Women and Health (September 1995); Adrienne Germaine and Rachel Kyte, The Cairo Consensus: The Right Agenda for the Right Time (New York, NY: International Women's Health Coalition, 1995); Gita Sen, Adrienne Germaine, and Lincoln Chen, Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment, and Human Rights (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1994); Noeleen Heyzer, The Balancing Act: Population, Development, and Women in an Era of Globalization, International Lecture Series on Population Issues (New Delhi, India: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, August 29, 1996).
3. Lesley Doyal, "The Politics of Women's Health: Setting a Global Agenda," International Journal of Health Services 26 (1996): 47-65, and What Makes Women Sick: Gender and the Political Economy of Health (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995); World Health, Special Issue on Women and Health (September 1995); Adrienne Germaine and Rachel Kyte, The Cairo Consensus: The Right Agenda for the Right Time (New York, NY: International Women's Health Coalition, 1995); Gita Sen, Adrienne Germaine, and Lincoln Chen, Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment, and Human Rights (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1994); Noeleen Heyzer, The Balancing Act: Population, Development, and Women in an Era of Globalization, International Lecture Series on Population Issues (New Delhi, India: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, August 29, 1996).
4. Lesley Doyal, "The Politics of Women's Health: Setting a Global Agenda," International Journal of Health Services 26 (1996): 47-65, and What Makes Women Sick: Gender and the Political Economy of Health (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995); World Health, Special Issue on Women and Health (September 1995); Adrienne Germaine and Rachel Kyte, The Cairo Consensus: The Right Agenda for the Right Time (New York, NY: International Women's Health Coalition, 1995); Gita Sen, Adrienne Germaine, and Lincoln Chen, Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment, and Human Rights (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1994); Noeleen Heyzer, The Balancing Act: Population, Development, and Women in an Era of Globalization, International Lecture Series on Population Issues (New Delhi, India: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, August 29, 1996).
5. Lesley Doyal, "The Politics of Women's Health: Setting a Global Agenda," International Journal of Health Services 26 (1996): 47-65, and What Makes Women Sick: Gender and the Political Economy of Health (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995); World Health, Special Issue on Women and Health (September 1995); Adrienne Germaine and Rachel Kyte, The Cairo Consensus: The Right Agenda for the Right Time (New York, NY: International Women's Health Coalition, 1995); Gita Sen, Adrienne Germaine, and Lincoln Chen, Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment, and Human Rights (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1994); Noeleen Heyzer, The Balancing Act: Population, Development, and Women in an Era of Globalization, International Lecture Series on Population Issues (New Delhi, India: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, August 29, 1996).
6. Lesley Doyal, "The Politics of Women's Health: Setting a Global Agenda," International Journal of Health Services 26 (1996): 47-65, and What Makes Women Sick: Gender and the Political Economy of Health (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995); World Health, Special Issue on Women and Health (September 1995); Adrienne Germaine and Rachel Kyte, The Cairo Consensus: The Right Agenda for the Right Time (New York, NY: International Women's Health Coalition, 1995); Gita Sen, Adrienne Germaine, and Lincoln Chen, Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment, and Human Rights (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1994); Noeleen Heyzer, The Balancing Act: Population, Development, and Women in an Era of Globalization, International Lecture Series on Population Issues (New Delhi, India: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, August 29, 1996).
7. Boston Women's Health Book Collective, Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book by and for Women, revised and expanded edition (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1976, and all subsequent editions); Evelyn C. White, ed. The Black Women's Health Book: Speaking for Ourselves, new expanded edition (Seattle, Wash: Seal Press, 1994).
8. Boston Women's Health Book Collective, Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book by and for Women, revised and expanded edition (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1976, and all subsequent editions); Evelyn C. White, ed. The Black Women's Health Book: Speaking for Ourselves, new expanded edition (Seattle, Wash: Seal Press, 1994).
9. Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1985).
10. Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women's Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1985).
11. A powerful critic of the health and economic effects of patriarchy is Nawal El Saadawi; see The Nawal El Saadawi Reader (London, England: Zed Books, 1997). Also see Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (London, England: George Allen & Unwin, 1970); C. H. Browner, "Women, Household and Health in Latin America," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 461-473; Lenore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); J. Vickers, Women and the World Economic Crisis (London, England: Zed Press, 1991).
12. A powerful critic of the health and economic effects of patriarchy is Nawal El Saadawi; see The Nawal El Saadawi Reader (London, England: Zed Books, 1997). Also see Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (London, England: George Allen & Unwin, 1970); C. H. Browner, "Women, Household and Health in Latin America," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 461-473; Lenore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); J. Vickers, Women and the World Economic Crisis (London, England: Zed Press, 1991).
13. A powerful critic of the health and economic effects of patriarchy is Nawal El Saadawi; see The Nawal El Saadawi Reader (London, England: Zed Books, 1997). Also see Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (London, England: George Allen & Unwin, 1970); C. H. Browner, "Women, Household and Health in Latin America," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 461-473; Lenore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); J. Vickers, Women and the World Economic Crisis (London, England: Zed Press, 1991).
14. A powerful critic of the health and economic effects of patriarchy is Nawal El Saadawi; see The Nawal El Saadawi Reader (London, England: Zed Books, 1997). Also see Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (London, England: George Allen & Unwin, 1970); C. H. Browner, "Women, Household and Health in Latin America," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 461-473; Lenore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); J. Vickers, Women and the World Economic Crisis (London, England: Zed Press, 1991).
15. A powerful critic of the health and economic effects of patriarchy is Nawal El Saadawi; see The Nawal El Saadawi Reader (London, England: Zed Books, 1997). Also see Ester Boserup, Women's Role in Economic Development (London, England: George Allen & Unwin, 1970); C. H. Browner, "Women, Household and Health in Latin America," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 461-473; Lenore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); J. Vickers, Women and the World Economic Crisis (London, England: Zed Press, 1991).
16. See Sue V. Rosser, "Androcentric Bias in Clinical Research," in Women's Health - Missing From U.S. Medicine (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 3-15, and Tracy Johnson, "Health Research That Excludes Women Is Bad Science," Chronicle of Higher Education (October 14, 1992).
17. See Sue V. Rosser, "Androcentric Bias in Clinical Research," in Women's Health - Missing From U.S. Medicine (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 3-15, and Tracy Johnson, "Health Research That Excludes Women Is Bad Science," Chronicle of Higher Education (October 14, 1992).
18. Michael O. West, "Nationalism, Race and Gender: The Politics of Family Planning in Zimbabwe, 1957-1990," Social History of Medicine 7 (December 1994): 447-471; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "The Body as Property: A Feminist Re-Vision," in Faye D. Ginsburg and Rayna Rapp, eds., Conceiving the New World Order (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 387-406; Laurie Nsiah-Jefferson and Elaine J. Hall, "Reproductive Technology: Perspectives and Implications for Low-Income Women and Women of Color," in Kathryn Strother Ratcliff, ed., Healing Technology, Feminist Perspectives (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989), 93-117, 173-198; and Mahmood Mamdani, The Myth of Population Control: Family, Caste, and Class in an Indian Village (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1972).
19. Michael O. West, "Nationalism, Race and Gender: The Politics of Family Planning in Zimbabwe, 1957-1990," Social History of Medicine 7 (December 1994): 447-471; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "The Body as Property: A Feminist Re-Vision," in Faye D. Ginsburg and Rayna Rapp, eds., Conceiving the New World Order (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 387-406; Laurie Nsiah-Jefferson and Elaine J. Hall, "Reproductive Technology: Perspectives and Implications for Low-Income Women and Women of Color," in Kathryn Strother Ratcliff, ed., Healing Technology, Feminist Perspectives (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989), 93-117, 173-198; and Mahmood Mamdani, The Myth of Population Control: Family, Caste, and Class in an Indian Village (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1972).
20. Michael O. West, "Nationalism, Race and Gender: The Politics of Family Planning in Zimbabwe, 1957-1990," Social History of Medicine 7 (December 1994): 447-471; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "The Body as Property: A Feminist Re-Vision," in Faye D. Ginsburg and Rayna Rapp, eds., Conceiving the New World Order (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 387-406; Laurie Nsiah-Jefferson and Elaine J. Hall, "Reproductive Technology: Perspectives and Implications for Low-Income Women and Women of Color," in Kathryn Strother Ratcliff, ed., Healing Technology, Feminist Perspectives (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989), 93-117, 173-198; and Mahmood Mamdani, The Myth of Population Control: Family, Caste, and Class in an Indian Village (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1972).
21. Michael O. West, "Nationalism, Race and Gender: The Politics of Family Planning in Zimbabwe, 1957-1990," Social History of Medicine 7 (December 1994): 447-471; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "The Body as Property: A Feminist Re-Vision," in Faye D. Ginsburg and Rayna Rapp, eds., Conceiving the New World Order (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 387-406; Laurie Nsiah-Jefferson and Elaine J. Hall, "Reproductive Technology: Perspectives and Implications for Low-Income Women and Women of Color," in Kathryn Strother Ratcliff, ed., Healing Technology, Feminist Perspectives (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989), 93-117, 173-198; and Mahmood Mamdani, The Myth of Population Control: Family, Caste, and Class in an Indian Village (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1972).
22. See Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted September 15, 1995, by the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, in Women and Human Rights: The Basic Documents (New York, NY: Center for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University, 1996); Alicia Yamin, "Transformative Combinations; Women's Health and Human Rights," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 52 (1997): 169-173; Nancy Krieger and Elizabeth Fee, "Man-Made Medicine and Women's Health: The Biopolitics of Sex/Gender and Race/Ethnicity," International Journal of Health Services 24 (1994): 265-283; Hilary Standing, "Gender and Equity in Health Sector Reform Programmes: A Review," Health Policy and Planning 12 (1997): 1-18; and Nancy Krieger and Sally Zierler, "Accounting for the Health of Women," Current Issues in Public Health 1 (1995): 251-256. Also Rebecca de los Rios, "Gender, Health, and Development: An Approach in the Making," in Elsa Gómez Gómez, ed., Gender, Women and Health in the Americas (Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1993), 3-22.
23. See Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted September 15, 1995, by the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, in Women and Human Rights: The Basic Documents (New York, NY: Center for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University, 1996); Alicia Yamin, "Transformative Combinations; Women's Health and Human Rights," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 52 (1997): 169-173; Nancy Krieger and Elizabeth Fee, "Man-Made Medicine and Women's Health: The Biopolitics of Sex/Gender and Race/Ethnicity," International Journal of Health Services 24 (1994): 265-283; Hilary Standing, "Gender and Equity in Health Sector Reform Programmes: A Review," Health Policy and Planning 12 (1997): 1-18; and Nancy Krieger and Sally Zierler, "Accounting for the Health of Women," Current Issues in Public Health 1 (1995): 251-256. Also Rebecca de los Rios, "Gender, Health, and Development: An Approach in the Making," in Elsa Gómez Gómez, ed., Gender, Women and Health in the Americas (Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1993), 3-22.
24. See Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted September 15, 1995, by the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, in Women and Human Rights: The Basic Documents (New York, NY: Center for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University, 1996); Alicia Yamin, "Transformative Combinations; Women's Health and Human Rights," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 52 (1997): 169-173; Nancy Krieger and Elizabeth Fee, "Man-Made Medicine and Women's Health: The Biopolitics of Sex/Gender and Race/Ethnicity," International Journal of Health Services 24 (1994): 265-283; Hilary Standing, "Gender and Equity in Health Sector Reform Programmes: A Review," Health Policy and Planning 12 (1997): 1-18; and Nancy Krieger and Sally Zierler, "Accounting for the Health of Women," Current Issues in Public Health 1 (1995): 251-256. Also Rebecca de los Rios, "Gender, Health, and Development: An Approach in the Making," in Elsa Gómez Gómez, ed., Gender, Women and Health in the Americas (Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1993), 3-22.
25. See Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted September 15, 1995, by the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, in Women and Human Rights: The Basic Documents (New York, NY: Center for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University, 1996); Alicia Yamin, "Transformative Combinations; Women's Health and Human Rights," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 52 (1997): 169-173; Nancy Krieger and Elizabeth Fee, "Man-Made Medicine and Women's Health: The Biopolitics of Sex/Gender and Race/Ethnicity," International Journal of Health Services 24 (1994): 265-283; Hilary Standing, "Gender and Equity in Health Sector Reform Programmes: A Review," Health Policy and Planning 12 (1997): 1-18; and Nancy Krieger and Sally Zierler, "Accounting for the Health of Women," Current Issues in Public Health 1 (1995): 251-256. Also Rebecca de los Rios, "Gender, Health, and Development: An Approach in the Making," in Elsa Gómez Gómez, ed., Gender, Women and Health in the Americas (Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1993), 3-22.
26. See Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted September 15, 1995, by the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, in Women and Human Rights: The Basic Documents (New York, NY: Center for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University, 1996); Alicia Yamin, "Transformative Combinations; Women's Health and Human Rights," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 52 (1997): 169-173; Nancy Krieger and Elizabeth Fee, "Man-Made Medicine and Women's Health: The Biopolitics of Sex/Gender and Race/Ethnicity," International Journal of Health Services 24 (1994): 265-283; Hilary Standing, "Gender and Equity in Health Sector Reform Programmes: A Review," Health Policy and Planning 12 (1997): 1-18; and Nancy Krieger and Sally Zierler, "Accounting for the Health of Women," Current Issues in Public Health 1 (1995): 251-256. Also Rebecca de los Rios, "Gender, Health, and Development: An Approach in the Making," in Elsa Gómez Gómez, ed., Gender, Women and Health in the Americas (Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1993), 3-22.
27. See Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted September 15, 1995, by the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, in Women and Human Rights: The Basic Documents (New York, NY: Center for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University, 1996); Alicia Yamin, "Transformative Combinations; Women's Health and Human Rights," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 52 (1997): 169-173; Nancy Krieger and Elizabeth Fee, "Man-Made Medicine and Women's Health: The Biopolitics of Sex/Gender and Race/Ethnicity," International Journal of Health Services 24 (1994): 265-283; Hilary Standing, "Gender and Equity in Health Sector Reform Programmes: A Review," Health Policy and Planning 12 (1997): 1-18; and Nancy Krieger and Sally Zierler, "Accounting for the Health of Women," Current Issues in Public Health 1 (1995): 251-256. Also Rebecca de los Rios, "Gender, Health, and Development: An Approach in the Making," in Elsa Gómez Gómez, ed., Gender, Women and Health in the Americas (Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1993), 3-22.
28. See, for example, United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 1995 (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995).
29. See, for example, Marcos Cueto, ed., Missionaries of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Roy MacLeod and Milton Lewis, eds., Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London, England: Routledge, 1988); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1988); Vicente Navarro, ed., Imperialism, Health and Medicine (Farmingdale, NY: Baywood Publishers, 1981); Soma Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease and Imperial Medicine: Rockefeller Philanthropy in Sri Lanka (Lanham, Md: University Press of America, 1995); and Helen Power, "The Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine: Institution-alizing Medical Research in the Periphery," Medical History 40 (1996): 197-214.
30. See, for example, Marcos Cueto, ed., Missionaries of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Roy MacLeod and Milton Lewis, eds., Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London, England: Routledge, 1988); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1988); Vicente Navarro, ed., Imperialism, Health and Medicine (Farmingdale, NY: Baywood Publishers, 1981); Soma Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease and Imperial Medicine: Rockefeller Philanthropy in Sri Lanka (Lanham, Md: University Press of America, 1995); and Helen Power, "The Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine: Institution-alizing Medical Research in the Periphery," Medical History 40 (1996): 197-214.
31. See, for example, Marcos Cueto, ed., Missionaries of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Roy MacLeod and Milton Lewis, eds., Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London, England: Routledge, 1988); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1988); Vicente Navarro, ed., Imperialism, Health and Medicine (Farmingdale, NY: Baywood Publishers, 1981); Soma Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease and Imperial Medicine: Rockefeller Philanthropy in Sri Lanka (Lanham, Md: University Press of America, 1995); and Helen Power, "The Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine: Institution-alizing Medical Research in the Periphery," Medical History 40 (1996): 197-214.
32. See, for example, Marcos Cueto, ed., Missionaries of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Roy MacLeod and Milton Lewis, eds., Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London, England: Routledge, 1988); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1988); Vicente Navarro, ed., Imperialism, Health and Medicine (Farmingdale, NY: Baywood Publishers, 1981); Soma Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease and Imperial Medicine: Rockefeller Philanthropy in Sri Lanka (Lanham, Md: University Press of America, 1995); and Helen Power, "The Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine: Institution-alizing Medical Research in the Periphery," Medical History 40 (1996): 197-214.
33. See, for example, Marcos Cueto, ed., Missionaries of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Roy MacLeod and Milton Lewis, eds., Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London, England: Routledge, 1988); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1988); Vicente Navarro, ed., Imperialism, Health and Medicine (Farmingdale, NY: Baywood Publishers, 1981); Soma Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease and Imperial Medicine: Rockefeller Philanthropy in Sri Lanka (Lanham, Md: University Press of America, 1995); and Helen Power, "The Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine: Institution-alizing Medical Research in the Periphery," Medical History 40 (1996): 197-214.
34. See, for example, Marcos Cueto, ed., Missionaries of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation and Latin America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Roy MacLeod and Milton Lewis, eds., Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London, England: Routledge, 1988); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1988); Vicente Navarro, ed., Imperialism, Health and Medicine (Farmingdale, NY: Baywood Publishers, 1981); Soma Hewa, Colonialism, Tropical Disease and Imperial Medicine: Rockefeller Philanthropy in Sri Lanka (Lanham, Md: University Press of America, 1995); and Helen Power, "The Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine: Institution-alizing Medical Research in the Periphery," Medical History 40 (1996): 197-214.
35. National Revolutionary Party's Six Year Plan, 1934-1940. Found with notes on Ferrell's trip to Mexico, February 8-March 1, 1935. RG 2. Series 300. Box 559. Folder 3790. Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Tarrytown, NY (hereafter referred to as RFA).
36. Of 67 IHD fellows over 3 decades, 5 were women, all nurses. See Anne-Emanuelle Birn, "Local Health and Foreign Wealth: The Rockefeller Foundation's Public Health Programs in Mexico, 1924-1951" (ScD dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1993).
37. Hookworm was the IHD's usual "entering wedge" program; its easy diagnosis and treatment effectively convinced governments, businesses, and the public of the value of public health services. See John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1981).
38. Bernardo Gastélum, Report of the Lucha Contra la Uncinariasis, May 1925. RG 5. Series 3. Box 144. RFA.
39. See Anne-Emanuelle Birn and Armando Solórzano, "Public Health Policy Paradoxes: Science and Politics in the Rockefeller Foundation's Hookworm Campaign in Mexico in the 1920s," Social Science and Medicine, in press.
40. La Historia de un Niño, Departamento de Salubridad Pública, Servicio de Propaganda y Educación Higiénica, Lucha Contra la Uncinariasis, Mexico, 1930. Section II/021/241. Box 39. Folder 83. Archive Histórico del Estado de Morelos. See also Anne-Emanuelle Birn and Armando Solórzano, "The Hook of Hookworm: Public Health and the Politics of Eradication in Mexico," in Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews, eds., Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge (Manchester, England: University of Manchester Press, 1997), 147-171.
41. See, for example, Lynne Curry, "Modernizing the Rural Mother: Gender, Class, and Health Reform in Illinois, 1910-1930," in Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden, eds., Mothers and Motherhood: Readings in American History (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1997), 495-516. For the limits to this approach for working mothers in Southern mill towns, see Patricia Everidge Hill, "Invisible Labours: Mill Work and Motherhood in the American South," Social History of Medicine 9 (1996): 235-251.
42. See, for example, Lynne Curry, "Modernizing the Rural Mother: Gender, Class, and Health Reform in Illinois, 1910-1930," in Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden, eds., Mothers and Motherhood: Readings in American History (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1997), 495-516. For the limits to this approach for working mothers in Southern mill towns, see Patricia Everidge Hill, "Invisible Labours: Mill Work and Motherhood in the American South," Social History of Medicine 9 (1996): 235-251.
43. Henry P. Carr to John Ferrell, October 14, 1929. RG 1.1. Series 323. Box 19. Folder 156. RFA.
44. Bailey to Ferrell, April 23, 1935. RG 1.1. Series 323. Box 19. Folder 160. RFA.
45. Mary Tennant's diary from trip to Mexico, February 11-March 11, 1936, 43. RG 2. Series 323. Box 135. Folder 1008. RFA.
46. Ibid., 42-43.
47. Report of the Hookworm Campaign, Minatitlán-Puerto México Cooperative Sanitary Unit and the Puerto México Antilarval Service, for the first quarter, 1931. Communicable Diseases Section, Departamento de Salud Pública, México, DF. Section II/021/241. Box 39. Folder 83. Archivo Histórico del Estado de Morelos.
48. Mary Tennant's diary from trip to Mexico. February 11-March 11, 1936, 33. RG 2. Series 323. Box 135. Folder 1008. RFA.
49. Examples of forms giving advice to pregnant mothers, included with Bailey to DSP chief, January 23, 1934. RG 1.1. Series 323. Box 19. Folder 159. RFA.
50. Interview with retired nurse Judith Castor, April 12, 1991, Cuernavaca, Morelos.
51. Report of the Hookworm Campaign, Minatitlán-Puerto México Cooperative Sanitary Unit and the Puerto Mexico Antilarval Service, for the second quarter, 1931. Communicable Diseases Section, Departamento de Salud Pública, Mexico, DF. Section II/021/242. Box 39. Folder 84. Archivo Histórico del Estado de Morelos. Also, interview with Judith Castor, April 12, 1991, Cuernavaca, Morelos.
52. Ibid.
53. Interview with "La Güera" Coronel, April 15, 1991, Cuernavaca, Morelos. She recalled that, after much convincing, they succeeded in saving many children's lives. For a critique of the decontextualized advocacy of oral rehydration therapy, water boiling, and other technical measures, see David Werner and David Sanders, Questioning the Solution: The Politics of Primary Health Care and Child Survival (Palo Alto, Calif: Health-Wrights. 1997).
54. Examples of forms giving advice to pregnant mothers, included with Bailey to DSP chief, January 23, 1934. RG 1.1. Series 323. Box 19. Folder 159. RFA.
55. For example, see Barbara Melosh, "The Physician's Hand": Work Culture and Conflict in American Nursing (Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press, 1982); Susan Reverby, Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987); and Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Bringing Care to the People: Lillian Wald's Legacy to Public Health Nursing," American Journal of Public Health 83 (1993): 1778-1786.
56. For example, see Barbara Melosh, "The Physician's Hand": Work Culture and Conflict in American Nursing (Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press, 1982); Susan Reverby, Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987); and Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Bringing Care to the People: Lillian Wald's Legacy to Public Health Nursing," American Journal of Public Health 83 (1993): 1778-1786.
57. For example, see Barbara Melosh, "The Physician's Hand": Work Culture and Conflict in American Nursing (Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press, 1982); Susan Reverby, Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987); and Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Bringing Care to the People: Lillian Wald's Legacy to Public Health Nursing," American Journal of Public Health 83 (1993): 1778-1786.
58. Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 119. See also Margaret Charles Smith and Linda Janet Holmes, Listen to Me Good: The Life Story of an Alabama Midwife (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1996).
59. Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 119. See also Margaret Charles Smith and Linda Janet Holmes, Listen to Me Good: The Life Story of an Alabama Midwife (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1996).
60. All quotations in this paragraph are from Annual Report, 1934. Rural Hygiene Service. DSP. RG 5. Series 3. Box 145. RFA. In the United States, too, midwives were blamed for high maternal and infant mortality. See Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," in Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (1966):350-363.
61. All quotations in this paragraph are from Report of the Hookworm Campaign, Minatitlán-Puerto México Cooperative Sanitary Unit and the Puerto Mexico Antilarval Service, for the second quarter, 1931. Communicable Diseases Section, Departamento de Salud Pública, México, DF. Section II/021/242. Box 39. Folder 84. Archivo Histórico del Estado de Morelos.
62. Although historical evidence relating to midwifery in the 1930s is incomplete, anthropological studies conducted from the 1920s through the 1970s offer a consistent portrayal of the practice. The first anthropological study of this kind was Robert Redfield's Tepoztlán - a Mexican Village (Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press, 1930). Oscar Lewis returned to the same Morelos village in the mid-1940s. His massive study, Life in a Mexican Village: Tepoztlán Restudied (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963), includes a comprehensive chapter on pregnancy and birth. Ten years later, Isabel Kelly was commissioned by the World Health Organization to publish "An Anthropological Approach to Midwifery Training in Mexico," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 1 (1956): 200-205. Nicolas León's La Obstetricia en México (Mexico, DF, 1910) also provides a good introduction to pregnancy and childbirth practices in early 20th-century Mexico.
63. Although historical evidence relating to midwifery in the 1930s is incomplete, anthropological studies conducted from the 1920s through the 1970s offer a consistent portrayal of the practice. The first anthropological study of this kind was Robert Redfield's Tepoztlán - a Mexican Village (Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press, 1930). Oscar Lewis returned to the same Morelos village in the mid-1940s. His massive study, Life in a Mexican Village: Tepoztlán Restudied (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963), includes a comprehensive chapter on pregnancy and birth. Ten years later, Isabel Kelly was commissioned by the World Health Organization to publish "An Anthropological Approach to Midwifery Training in Mexico," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 1 (1956): 200-205. Nicolas León's La Obstetricia en México (Mexico, DF, 1910) also provides a good introduction to pregnancy and childbirth practices in early 20th-century Mexico.
64. Although historical evidence relating to midwifery in the 1930s is incomplete, anthropological studies conducted from the 1920s through the 1970s offer a consistent portrayal of the practice. The first anthropological study of this kind was Robert Redfield's Tepoztlán - a Mexican Village (Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press, 1930). Oscar Lewis returned to the same Morelos village in the mid-1940s. His massive study, Life in a Mexican Village: Tepoztlán Restudied (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963), includes a comprehensive chapter on pregnancy and birth. Ten years later, Isabel Kelly was commissioned by the World Health Organization to publish "An Anthropological Approach to Midwifery Training in Mexico," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 1 (1956): 200-205. Nicolas León's La Obstetricia en México (Mexico, DF, 1910) also provides a good introduction to pregnancy and childbirth practices in early 20th-century Mexico.
65. Although historical evidence relating to midwifery in the 1930s is incomplete, anthropological studies conducted from the 1920s through the 1970s offer a consistent portrayal of the practice. The first anthropological study of this kind was Robert Redfield's Tepoztlán - a Mexican Village (Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press, 1930). Oscar Lewis returned to the same Morelos village in the mid-1940s. His massive study, Life in a Mexican Village: Tepoztlán Restudied (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963), includes a comprehensive chapter on pregnancy and birth. Ten years later, Isabel Kelly was commissioned by the World Health Organization to publish "An Anthropological Approach to Midwifery Training in Mexico," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 1 (1956): 200-205. Nicolas León's La Obstetricia en México (Mexico, DF, 1910) also provides a good introduction to pregnancy and childbirth practices in early 20th-century Mexico.
66. Sheila Cosminsky, "Midwifery and Medical Anthropology," in Boris Velimirovic, ed., Modern Medicine and Medical Anthropology in the United States-Mexico Border Population (Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, Scientific Publication No. 359, 1978).
67. Interview with Judith Castor, April 12, 1991, Cuernavaca, Morelos.
68. Interview with "La Güera" Coronel, April 15, 1991, Cuernavaca, Morelos.
69. José Refugio Bustamante, Declaration for the Foundation of the School of Nursing and Obstetrics, January 30, 1937. Section II/021/241. Box 40. Folder 62. Archivo Histórico del Estado de Morelos. According to Governor Bustamante, this ignorance stemmed from the "economic and cultural backwardness of the majority of the population, a situation incompatible with the country's growing economy and its cultural improvement, deriving from the revitalizing action of the Revolution."
70. J. Arias Huerta, "El papel de la empírica como promotora de salud materno-infantil." Paper presented at the National Conference on Health, Mexico City, 1973, as quoted in Sheila Cosminsky, "Midwifery and Medical Anthropology."
71. J. Arias Huerta, "El papel de la empírica como promotora de salud materno-infantil." Paper presented at the National Conference on Health, Mexico City, 1973, as quoted in Sheila Cosminsky, "Midwifery and Medical Anthropology."
72. See Deborah Dwork, War is Good for Babies and Other Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1918 (London, England: Tavistock, 1987); Valerie Fildes, Lara Marks, and Hilary Marland, eds., Women and Children First: International Maternal and Infant Welfare, 1870-1945 (London, England: Routledge, 1992); and Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, NY: Routledge, 1993). Here Alisa Klaus argues that "making maternity compatible with wage labor was a primary focus of many French maternal- and infant-health programs" (p 195). In the French case, protective maternalist legislation stemmed from preoccupation about babies' dying when mothers gave up breastfeeding to return to work and from low fertility resulting from the reluctance of some working-class women to undergo the physical and financial suffering of pregnancy and motherhood.
73. See Deborah Dwork, War is Good for Babies and Other Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1918 (London, England: Tavistock, 1987); Valerie Fildes, Lara Marks, and Hilary Marland, eds., Women and Children First: International Maternal and Infant Welfare, 1870-1945 (London, England: Routledge, 1992); and Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, NY: Routledge, 1993). Here Alisa Klaus argues that "making maternity compatible with wage labor was a primary focus of many French maternal- and infant-health programs" (p 195). In the French case, protective maternalist legislation stemmed from preoccupation about babies' dying when mothers gave up breastfeeding to return to work and from low fertility resulting from the reluctance of some working-class women to undergo the physical and financial suffering of pregnancy and motherhood.
74. See Deborah Dwork, War is Good for Babies and Other Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1918 (London, England: Tavistock, 1987); Valerie Fildes, Lara Marks, and Hilary Marland, eds., Women and Children First: International Maternal and Infant Welfare, 1870-1945 (London, England: Routledge, 1992); and Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, NY: Routledge, 1993). Here Alisa Klaus argues that "making maternity compatible with wage labor was a primary focus of many French maternal- and infant-health programs" (p 195). In the French case, protective maternalist legislation stemmed from preoccupation about babies' dying when mothers gave up breastfeeding to return to work and from low fertility resulting from the reluctance of some working-class women to undergo the physical and financial suffering of pregnancy and motherhood.
75. Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 5-6. See also Charles R. King, Children's Health in America: A History (New York, NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993); Rima D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890-1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1987); Janet Golden, A Social History of Wet-Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (Cambridge. England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and Samuel H. Preston and Michael R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-48.
76. Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 5-6. See also Charles R. King, Children's Health in America: A History (New York, NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993); Rima D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890-1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1987); Janet Golden, A Social History of Wet-Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (Cambridge. England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and Samuel H. Preston and Michael R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-48.
77. Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 5-6. See also Charles R. King, Children's Health in America: A History (New York, NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993); Rima D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890-1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1987); Janet Golden, A Social History of Wet-Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (Cambridge. England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and Samuel H. Preston and Michael R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-48.
78. Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 5-6. See also Charles R. King, Children's Health in America: A History (New York, NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993); Rima D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890-1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1987); Janet Golden, A Social History of Wet-Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (Cambridge. England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and Samuel H. Preston and Michael R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-48.
79. Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 5-6. See also Charles R. King, Children's Health in America: A History (New York, NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993); Rima D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890-1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1987); Janet Golden, A Social History of Wet-Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (Cambridge. England: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and Samuel H. Preston and Michael R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-48.
80. See especially Molly Ladd-Taylor, ed., Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers' Letters to the Children's Bureau, 1915-1932 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986), and "'Why Does Congress Wish Women and Children to Die?': The Rise and Fall of Public Maternal and Infant Health Care in the United States, 1921-1929," in Fildes et al., eds., Women and Children First, 121-132, for the fascinating story of how women's suffrage helped pass the Sheppard-Towner Act and physician jealousy and right-wing hysteria doomed it. See also Arthur Lesser, "The Origin and Development of Maternal and Child Health Programs in the United States," American Journal of Public Health 75 (1985): 590-598.
81. See especially Molly Ladd-Taylor, ed., Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers' Letters to the Children's Bureau, 1915-1932 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986), and "'Why Does Congress Wish Women and Children to Die?': The Rise and Fall of Public Maternal and Infant Health Care in the United States, 1921-1929," in Fildes et al., eds., Women and Children First, 121-132, for the fascinating story of how women's suffrage helped pass the Sheppard-Towner Act and physician jealousy and right-wing hysteria doomed it. See also Arthur Lesser, "The Origin and Development of Maternal and Child Health Programs in the United States," American Journal of Public Health 75 (1985): 590-598.
82. See especially Molly Ladd-Taylor, ed., Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers' Letters to the Children's Bureau, 1915-1932 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986), and "'Why Does Congress Wish Women and Children to Die?': The Rise and Fall of Public Maternal and Infant Health Care in the United States, 1921-1929," in Fildes et al., eds., Women and Children First, 121-132, for the fascinating story of how women's suffrage helped pass the Sheppard-Towner Act and physician jealousy and right-wing hysteria doomed it. See also Arthur Lesser, "The Origin and Development of Maternal and Child Health Programs in the United States," American Journal of Public Health 75 (1985): 590-598.
83. See Katherine Elaine Bliss, Prostitution, Revolution and Social Reform in Mexico City, 1918-1940 (PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 1996), and Ann S. Blum, Children Without Parents: Law, Charity, and Social Practice, Mexico City, 1870-1940 (PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1997).
84. See Katherine Elaine Bliss, Prostitution, Revolution and Social Reform in Mexico City, 1918-1940 (PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 1996), and Ann S. Blum, Children Without Parents: Law, Charity, and Social Practice, Mexico City, 1870-1940 (PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1997).
85. Francesca Miller, Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1991), especially chapter 4, "Feminism and Social Motherhood, 1890-1938," 68-109. For more on the development of women's rights in Mexico, see Anna Macías, Against All Odds: The Feminist Movement in Mexico to 1940 (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1982).
86. Francesca Miller, Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1991), especially chapter 4, "Feminism and Social Motherhood, 1890-1938," 68-109. For more on the development of women's rights in Mexico, see Anna Macías, Against All Odds: The Feminist Movement in Mexico to 1940 (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1982).
87. Francesca Miller, Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1991), especially chapter 4, "Feminism and Social Motherhood, 1890-1938," 68-109. For more on the development of women's rights in Mexico, see Anna Macías, Against All Odds: The Feminist Movement in Mexico to 1940 (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1982).
88. Carmen Gómez, "La Enfermera Sanitaria y su Verdadera Función Social," Revista Sanitaria Mexicana (February 1939), 44.
89. La Comisión Femenil de La Antigua, Veracruz, to President Avila Camacho, July 31, 1943. RG Avila Camacho. Folder 151.3/493. Archivo General de la Nación. Mexico City.
90. Paula A. Treichler, "AIDS, Gender, and Biomedical Discourse: Current Contests for Meaning," in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds., AIDS, The Burdens of History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 190-266. Treichler discusses the medical and literary convention of viewing the female body, particularly the vagina, as a carrier and transmitter of disease. Here it is the female's conscious (but ignorant) actions, both inside and outside the body, that are blamed for maternal and child mortality. See also Kathryn Carovano, "More Than Mothers and Whores: Redefining AIDS Prevention Needs of Women," International Journal of Health Services 21 (1991): 131-142.
91. Paula A. Treichler, "AIDS, Gender, and Biomedical Discourse: Current Contests for Meaning," in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds., AIDS, The Burdens of History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 190-266. Treichler discusses the medical and literary convention of viewing the female body, particularly the vagina, as a carrier and transmitter of disease. Here it is the female's conscious (but ignorant) actions, both inside and outside the body, that are blamed for maternal and child mortality. See also Kathryn Carovano, "More Than Mothers and Whores: Redefining AIDS Prevention Needs of Women," International Journal of Health Services 21 (1991): 131-142.
92. See annual reports of the Kellogg Foundation, Battle Creek, Michigan, 1951-1989.
93. For example, Anthony R. Meashem and Richard A. Heaver, India's Family Welfare Program: Moving to a Reproductive and Child Health Approach (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1996).
94. See especially Bonnie Mass, Population Target: The Political Economy of Population Control in Latin America (Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Women's Educational Press, 1976), and Betsy Hartmann, Reproductive Rights and Wrongs: The Global Politics of Population Control and Contraceptive Choice (Boston, Mass: South End Press, 1995) and her two related articles in International Journal of Health Services 27 (1997): 523-557.
95. See especially Bonnie Mass, Population Target: The Political Economy of Population Control in Latin America (Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Women's Educational Press, 1976), and Betsy Hartmann, Reproductive Rights and Wrongs: The Global Politics of Population Control and Contraceptive Choice (Boston, Mass: South End Press, 1995) and her two related articles in International Journal of Health Services 27 (1997): 523-557.
96. See especially Bonnie Mass, Population Target: The Political Economy of Population Control in Latin America (Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Women's Educational Press, 1976), and Betsy Hartmann, Reproductive Rights and Wrongs: The Global Politics of Population Control and Contraceptive Choice (Boston, Mass: South End Press, 1995) and her two related articles in International Journal of Health Services 27 (1997): 523-557.
97. See Sherry Arnstein, "A Ladder of Community Participation," American Institute of Planners Journal (July 1969): 216-224, and Antonio Ugalde, "Ideological Dimensions of Community Participation in Latin American Health Programs," Social Science and Medicine 21 (1985): 41-53.
98. See Sherry Arnstein, "A Ladder of Community Participation," American Institute of Planners Journal (July 1969): 216-224, and Antonio Ugalde, "Ideological Dimensions of Community Participation in Latin American Health Programs," Social Science and Medicine 21 (1985): 41-53.
99. United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 1995.