Fetal cells in the maternal circulation: Feasibility for prenatal diagnosis

British Journal of Haematology

Volumn 105, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 574-583

  Bianchi, Diana W ^a  

^a Division of Psychiatry   (United States)

Author keywords

Fetal cells; FISH; Microchimaerism; PCR; Prenatal diagnosis

Indexed keywords

INHIBIN A;

AMNIOCENTESIS; CYTODIAGNOSIS; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DISEASE MARKER; FETOMATERNAL TRANSFUSION; FETUS; FETUS CELL; HUMAN; MICROCHIMERISM; MOLECULAR GENETICS; PARENTAL AGE; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCREENING; TRISOMY 21;

CELL SEPARATION; CELLS, CULTURED; DOWN SYNDROME; FEMALE; FETUS; HUMANS; MATERNAL-FETAL EXCHANGE; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS;

EID: 0032999273     PISSN: 00071048     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2141.1999.01383.x     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Adkinson, L.R., Andrews, R.H., Vowell, N.L. & Koontz, W.L. (1994) Improved detection of fetal cells from maternal blood with polymerase chain reaction. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 170, 952-955.
2. Al-Mufti, R., Howard, C., Overton, T., Holzgreve, W., Gaenshirt. D., Fisk, N.M. & Bennet, P. (1998) Detection of fetal messenger ribonucleic acid in maternal blood to determine fetal RhD status as a strategy for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 179, 210-214.
3. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (1996) Maternal serum screening. ACOG Technical Bulletin, 228, ACOG, Washington DC.
4. Artlett, C.M., Smith. J.B. & Jimenez, S.A. (1998) Identification of fetal DNA and cells in skin lesions from women with systemic sclerosis. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 1186-1191.
5. Bertero, M.T., Camaschella, C., Serra, A., Bergui, L. & Caligaris-Cappio, F. (1988) Circulating 'trophoblast' cells in pregnancy have maternal genetic markers. Prenatal Diagnosis, 8, 588-590.
6. Bianchi, D.W. (1998) Prenatal diagnosis through the analysis of fetal cells in the maternal circulation. Genetic Disorders of the Fetus (ed. by A. Milunsky), pp. 931-951. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
7. Bianchi, D.W., Flint, A.F., Pizzimenti, M.F., Knoll, J.H.M. & Latt, S.A. (1990) Isolation of fetal DNA from nucleated erythrocytes in maternal blood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 87, 3279-3283.
8. Bianchi, D.W., Klinger, K.W., Vadnais, T.J., DeMaria, M.A., Shuber, A.P., Skoletsky, J., Midura, P., DiRiso, M., Pelletier, C., Genova, M., Erikson, M.S. & Williams. J.M. (1996a) Development of a model system to compare cell separation methods for the isolation of fetal cells from maternal blood. Prenatal Diagnosis, 16, 289-298.
9. Bianchi, D.W., Mahr, A., Zickwolf, G.K., Houseal, T.W., Flint, A.F. & Klinger, K.W. (1992) Detection of fetal cells with 47, XY, +21 karyotype in maternal peripheral blood. Human Genetics, 90, 368-370.
10. Bianchi, D.W., Shuber, A.P., DeMaria, M.A., Fougner, A.C. & Klinger. K.W. (1994a) Fetal cells in maternal blood: determination of purity and yield by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 171, 922-926.
11. Bianchi, D.W., Stewart, J.E., Garber, M.F., Lucotte, G. & Flint, A.F. (1991) Possible effect of gestational age on the detection of fetal nucleated erythrocytes in maternal blood. Prenatal Diagnosis, 11, 523-528.
12. Bianchi, D.W., Williams, J.M., Sulliva, L.M., Hanson, F.W., Klinger, K.W. & Shuber, A.P. (1997) PCR quantitation of fetal cells in maternal blood in normal and aneuploid pregnancies. American Journal of Human Genetics, 61, 822-829.
13. Bianchi, D.W., Yih, M.C., Zickwolf, G.K. & Flint, A.F. (1994b) Transferrin receptor (CD71) expression on circulating mononuclear cells during pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 170, 202-206.
14. Bianchi, D.W., Zickwolf, G.K., Weil, G.J., Sylvester, S. & DeMaria, M.A. (1996b) Male fetal progenitor cells persist in maternal blood for as long as 27 years post partum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93, 705-708.
15. Bianchi, D.W., Zickwoll, G.K., Yih, M.C., Flint, A.F., Geifman, O.H., Erikson, M.S. & Williams. J.M. (1993) Erythroid-specific antibodies enhance detection of fetal nucleated erythrocytes in maternal blood. Prenatal Diagnosis, 13, 293-300.
16. Bischoff, F.Z., Lewis, D.E., Nguyen, D.D., Murrell, S., Schober, W., Scott, J., Simpson, J.L. & Elias, S. (1998) Prenatal diagnosis with use of fetal cells isolated from maternal blood: five-color fluorescent in situ hybridization analysis on flow-sorted cells for chromosomes X, Y, 13, 18, and 21. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 179, 203-209.
17. Bischoff, F.Z., Lewis, D.E., Simpson. J.L., Nguyen, D.D., Scott. J., Schober, W., Murrell, S. & Elias, S. (1995) Detection of low-grade mosaicism in fetal cells isolated from maternal blood. Prenatal Diagnosis, 15, 1182-1184.
18. Bohmer, R.M., Zhen, D.K. & Bianchi, D.W. (1998) Differential development of fetal and adult haemoglobin profiles in colony culture: isolation of fetal nucleated red cells by two-colour fluorescence labelling. British Journal of Haematology, 103, 351-360.
19. Busch, J., Huber, P., Pfluger, E., Miltenyi, S.T., Holtz, J. & Radbruch, A. (1994) Enrichment of fetal cells from maternal blood by high gradient magnetic cell sorting (double MACS) for PCR-based genetic analysis. Prenatal Diagnosis, 14, 1129-1140.
20. Cacheux, V., Milesi-Fluet, C., Tachdjian, G., Druart, L., Bruch, J.F.. Hsi, B.L., Uzan, S. & Nessman, C. (1992) Detection of 47, XYY trophoblast fetal cells in maternal blood by fluorescent in situ hybridization after using immunomagnetic lymphocyte depletion and flow cytometry sorting. Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy, 7, 190-194.
21. Camaschella, C., Alfaran, A., Gottardi, E., Travi, M., Primignani, P., Caligaris-Cappio, F. & Saglio, G.H. (1990) Prenatal diagnosis of fetal hemoglobin Lepore-Boston disease on maternal peripheral blood. Blood, 75, 2102-2106.
22. Cheung, M.C., Goldberg, J.D. & Kan, Y.W. (1996) Prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia by analysis of fetal cells in maternal blood. Nature Genetics, 14, 264-268.
23. Chua, S., Wilkins, T., Sargent, I. & Redman, C. (1991) Trophoblast deportation in pre-eclamptic pregnancy. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 98, 973-979.
24. Ciaranfi, A., Curchod, A. & Odartchenko, N. (1977) Postpartum survival of fetal lymphocytes in the maternal blood. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift, 107, 134-138.
25. Covone, A.E., Johnson, P.M., Mutton, D. & Adinolfi, M. (1984) Trophoblast cells in peripheral blood of pregnant women. Lancet, ii, 841-843.
26. Covone, A.E., Kozman, R., Johnson, P.M., Latt, S.A. & Adinolfi, M. (1988) Analysis of peripheral maternal blood samples for the presence of placental-derived cells using Y-specific probes and mAb H315. Prenatal Diagnosis, 8, 591-607.
27. De La Cruz, F., Shifrin, H., Elias, S., Simpson, J.L., Jackson, L., Klinger, K.W., Bianchi, D.W., Kaplan, S.H., Evans, M., Holzgreve, W. & Ganshirt, D. (1995) Prenatal diagnosis by use of fetal cells isolated from maternal blood. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 173, 1354-1355.
28. DeMaria, M.A., Zheng, Y.L., Zhen, D.K., Weinschenk, N.M., Vadnais. T.J. & Bianchi, D.W. (1996) Improved fetal nucleated erythrocyte sorting purity using intracellular antifetal hemoglobin and Hoechst 33342. Cytometry, 25, 37-45.
29. Elias, S., Price, J., Dockter, M., Wachtel, S., Tharape, A., Simpson, J.L. & Klinger, K.W. (1992) First trimester diagnosis of trisomy 21 in fetal cells from maternal blood. Lancet, 340, 1033.
30. Farina, A. & Bianchi, D.W. (1998) Fetal cells in maternal blood as a second non-invasive step for fetal Down syndrome screening. Prenatal Diagnosis, 18, in press.
31. Gänshirt-Ahlert, D., Börjesson-Stoll, R.M., Dohr, A., Garritsen, H.S.P., Helmer, E., Miny, P., Velasco, M., Walde, C., Patterson, D., Teng., N., Bhat, N.M., Beiber, M.M. & Holzgrev, W. (1993) Detection of fetal trisomies 21 and 18 from maternal blood using triple gradient and magnetic cell sorting. American Journal of Reproduction Immunology, 30, 194-201.
32. Gänshirt-Ahlert, D., Burschyk, M., Garritsen, H.S.P., Helmer, L., Miny, P., Horst, J., Schneider, H.P.G. & Holzgreve, W. (1992) Magnetic cell sorting and the transferrin receptor as potential means of prenatal diagnosis from maternal blood. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 166, 1350-1355.
33. Gänshirt, D., Garritsen, H.S.P., Miny, P. & Holzgreve, W. (1994) Fetal cells in maternal circulation throughout gestation. Lancet, 343, 1038-1039.
34. Geifman-Holtzman, O., Bernstein, I.M., Berry, S.M., Holtzman, E.J., Vadnais, T.J., DeMaria, M.A. & Bianchi, D.W. (1996) Fetal RhD genotyping in fetal cells flow sorted from maternal blood. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 174, 818-822.
35. Geifman-Holtzman, O., Holtzman, E.J., Vadnais, T.J., Phillips, V.E., Capeless, E.L. & Bianchi, D.W. (1995) Detection of fetal HLA-DQ alpha sequences in maternal blood: a gender-independent technique of fetal cell identification. Prenatal Diagnosis, 15, 261-268.
36. Geifman-Holtzman, O., Kaufman, L., Gonchoroff, N., Bernstei, I. & Holtzman, E.J. (1998) Prenatal diagnosis of the fetal RhC genotype from maternal peripheral blood. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 91, 506-510.
37. Haddow, J.E. (1998) Antenatal screening for Down's syndrome: where are we and where next? Lancet, 351, 336-337.
38. Haddow, J.E., Palomaki, G.E., Knight, G.J., Williams. J., Miller, W.A. & Johnson, A. (1998) Screening of maternal serum for fetal Down's syndrome in the first trimester. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 955-961.
39. Hahn, S., Sant, R. & Holzgreve, W. (1998) Fetal cells in maternal blood: current and future perspectives. Molecular Human Reproduction, 4, 515-521.
40. Hall, J.M., Adams, S., Williams, S., Rehse, M.A., Layton, T.J. & Molesh, D.A. (1994) Purification of fetal cells from maternal blood using an avidin-biotin immunoaffinity column. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 731, 115-127.
41. Hall. J.M., Lingenfelter, P., Adams, S.L., Lasser, D., Hansen, S.A. & Bean, M.A. (1995) Detection of maternal cells in human umbilical cord blood using fluorescence in situ hybridization. Blood, 86, 2829-2832.
42. Hamada, H., Arinami, T., Hamaguchi, H. & Kubo, T. (1994) Fetal nucleated cells in maternal peripheral blood after delivery. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 170, 1188-1193.
43. Hamada, H., Arinami, T., Kubo, T., Hamaguchi, H. & Iwasaki, H. (1993) Fetal nucleated cells in maternal peripheral blood: frequency and relationship to gestational age. Human Genetics, 91, 427-432.
44. Hawes, C.S., Suskin, H.A., Kalionis, B., Mueller, U.W., Casey, G., Hall, J. & Rudzki, Z. (1994a) Detection of paternally inherited mutations for ó thalassemia in trophoblast isolated from peripheral maternal blood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 731, 181-185.
45. Hawes, C.S., Suskin, H.A., Petropoulos, A., Latham, S.E. & Mueller, U.W. (1994b) A morphologic study of trophoblast isolated from the peripheral blood of pregnant women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 170, 1297-1300.
46. Hengstschlager, M. & Bernaschek, G. (1997) Fetal cells in the peripheral blood of pregnant women express thymidine kinase: a new marker for detection. FEBS Letters, 404, 299-302.
47. Herzenberg, L.A., Bianchi, D.W., Schröder, J., Cann, H.M. & Iverson, G.M. (1979) Fetal cells in the blood of pregnant women: detection and enrichment by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 76, 1453-1455.
48. Holzgreve, W., Ghezzi, F., DiNaro, E., Ganshirt, D., Maymon, E. & Hahn, S. (1998) Feto-maternal cell traffic is disturbed in preeclampsia. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 91, 669-672.
49. Hsieh, T.T., Pao, C.C., Hor, J.J. & Kao, S.M., (1993) Presence of fetal cells in maternal circulation after delivery. Human Genetics, 92, 204-205.
50. Hyett, J.A., Perdu, M., Sharland, G.K., Snijders, R.S.M. & Nicolaides, K.H. (1997) Increased nuchal translucency at 10-14 weeks of gestation as a marker for major cardiac defects. Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 10, 242-246.
51. Iverson, G.M., Bianchi, D.W., Cann, H.M. & Herzenberg, L.A. (1981) Detection and isolation of fetal cells from maternal blood using the fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS). Prenatal Diagnosis, 1, 61-73.
52. Jansen, M.W., Brandenburg, H., Wildschut, H.I., Martens, A.C., Hagenaars, A.M., Wladimoroff, J.W. & in't Veld, P.A. (1997) The effect of chorionic villus sampling on the number of fetal cells isolated from maternal blood and on maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein levels. Prenatal Diagnosis, 17, 953-959.
53. Kao, S.M., Tang, C.G., Hsieh, T.T., Young, K.C., Wang, H.C. & Pao, C.C. (1992) Analysis of peripheral blood of pregnant women for the presence of fetal Y chromosome-specific gene deoxyribonucleic acid sequences. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 166, 1013-1019.
54. Latham, S.E., Suskin, H.A., Petropoulos, A., Hawes, C.S., Jones, W.R. & Kalionis, B. (1996) A monoclonal antibody to human placental lactogen hormone facilities isolation of fetal cells from maternal blood in a model system. Prenatal Diagnosis, 16, 813-821.
55. Lewis, D.E., Schober, W., Murrel, S., Nguyen, D., Scott, J., Boinoff, J., Simpson, J.L., Bischoff, F.Z. & Elias, S. (1996) Rare event selection of fetal nucleated erythrocytes in maternal blood by flow cytometry. Cytometry, 23, 218-227.
56. Liou, J.D., Pao, C.C., Hor, J.J. & Kao, S.M. (1993) Fetal cells in the maternal circulation during the first trimester in pregnancies. Human Genetics, 92, 309-311.
57. + hemopoietic progenitor cells from maternal peripheral blood. Blood, 89, 2347-2358.
58. Lo, Y.M.R., Bowell, P.J., Selinger, M., MacKenzie, I.Z., Chamberlain, P., Gillmer, M.D.G., Littlewood, T.J., Fleming, K.A. & Wainscoat, J.S. (1993a) Prenatal determination of fetal RhD status by analysis of peripheral blood of Rhesus negative mothers. Lancet, 341, 1147-1148.
59. Lo, Y.M.D., Corbetta, N., Chamberlain, P.F., Rai, V. & Sargent, I.L. (1997) Presence of fetal DNA in maternal plasma and serum. Lancet, 350, 264-265.
60. Lo, Y.M.D., Lo, E.S.F., Watson, N., Noakes, L., Sargent, I.L., Thilaganathan, B. & Wainscoat, J.S. (1996) Two-way cell traffic between mother and fetus: biologic and clinical implications. Blood, 88, 4390-4395.
61. Lo, Y.M.D., Morey, A.L., Wainscoat, J.S. & Fleming, K.A. (1994a) Culture of fetal erythroid cells from maternal peripheral blood. Lancet, 344, 264-265.
62. Lo, Y.M.D., Noakes, L., Bowell, P.J., Fleming, K.A. & Wainscoat, J.S. (1994b) Detection of fetal RhD sequence from peripheral blood of sensitized RhD-negative pregnant women. British Journal of Haematology, 87, 658-660.
63. Lo, Y.M.D., Patel, P., Baigent, C.N., Gillmer, M.D.G., Chamberlain, P., Travi, M., Sampietro, M., Wainscoat, J.S. & Fleming, K.A. (1993b). Prenatal sex determination from maternal peripheral blood using the polymerase chain reaction. Human Genetics, 90, 483-488.
64. Lo, Y.M.D., Patel, P., Sampietro, M., Gillmer, M.D.G., Fleming, K.A. & Wainscoat, J.S. (1990) Detection of single copy fetal DNA sequence from maternal blood. Lancet, i, 1463-1464.
65. Lo, Y.M.D., Tein, M.S.C., Lau, T.K., Haines. C.J., Leung, T.N., Poon, P.M.K., Wainscoat, J.S., Johnson, P.J., Chang, A.M.Z. & Hjelm, N.M. (1998) Quantitative analysis of fetal DNA in maternal plasma and serum: implications for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis. American Journal of Human Genetics, 62, 768-775.
66. Martin, B., Bruce, J., Smith, N., Liu, D. & Durrant, L. (1997) A magnetic colloid system for isolation of rare cells from blood for FISH analysis. Prenatal Diagnosis, 17, 1059-1066.
67. Mesker, W.E., Ouwerkerk-Van Velzen, M.C.M., Oosterwijk, J.C., Bernini, L.F., Golbus, M.S., Kanhai, H.H.H., Van Ommen, G.J.B. & Tanke, H.J. (1998) Two-color immunocytochemical staining of gamma (γ) and epsilon (var-epsilon) type hemoglobin in fetal red cells. Prenatal Diagnosis, 18, 1131-1137.
68. Moreau, P., Teyssier, M., Kirszenbaum, M., Gluckman, E., Gourand, L., Carosella, E. & Dausset, J. (1994) HLA-G mRNA forms in human trophoblasts and peripheral blood lymphocytes: potential use in prenatal diagnosis. Folia Biologica, 40, 431-438.
69. Müller, U.W., Hawes, C.S., Wright, A.E., Petropoulos, A., DeBovi, E., Firgaira, F.A., Morley, A.A., Turner, D.R. & Jones, W.R. (1990) Isolation of fetal trophoblast cells from peripheral blood of pregnant women. Lancet, 336, 197-200.
70. Nelson, J.L. (1996) Viewpoint. Maternal-fetal immunology and autoimmune disease: is some autoimmune disease auto-alloimmune or allo-autoimmune? Arthritis and Rheumatism, 39, 191-194.
71. Nelson, J.L. (1998) Microchimerism and autoimmune disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 1224-1225.
72. Nelson, J.L., Furst, D.E., Maloney, S., Gooley, T., Evans, P.C., Smith, A., Bean, M.A., Ober, C. & Bianchi, D.W. (1998) Microchimerism and HLA-compatible relationships of pregnancy in scleroderma. Lancet, 351, 559-562.
73. Nicolaides, K.H., Azar, G., Byrne, D., Mansur, C. & Marks, K. (1992) Fetal nuchal translucency: ultrasound screening for chromosomal defects in first trimester of pregnancy. British Medical Journal, 304, 867-869.
74. Oosterwijk, J.C. (1998) Detection of fetal cells in maternal blood using immunocytochemistry and automated microscopy: an approach for prenatal diagnosis. Doctoral thesis, Leiden University, the Netherlands.
75. Oosterwijk, J.C., Mesker, W.E., Ouwerkerk-van Velzen, M.C.M., Kneptle, C.F., Wiesmeijer, K.C., Beverstock, G.C., van-Ommen, G.J.B., Tanke, H.J. & Kanhai, H.H. (1998a) Prenatal diagnosis of trisomy 13 on fetal cells obtained from maternal blood after minor enrichment. Prenatal Diagnosis, 18, 1082-1085.
76. Oosterwijk. J.C., Mesker, W.E., Ouwerkerk, M.C., Knepfle, C.F., van der Burg. M.J., Wiesmeijer, C.C., Beverstock, G.C., Losekoot, M., Bernini, L.F., van Ommen, G.J., van de Kamp, J.J., Kanhai, H.H. & Tanke, H.J. (1996) Detection of fetal erythroblasts in maternal blood by one-step gradient enrichment and immunocytochemical recognition. Early Human Development, 47, (Suppl.), 595-597.
77. Oosterwijk, J.C., Mesker, W.E., Ouwerkerkerk-van Velzen, M.C., Knepfle, C.F., Wiesmeijer, K.C., van der Burg, M.J., Beverstock, G.C., Bernini, L.F., van Ommen, G.J., Kanhai, H.H. & Tanke, H.J. (1998b) Development of a preparation and staining method for fetal erythroblasts in maternal blood: simultaneous immunocytochemical staining and FISH analysis. Cytometry, 32, 170-177.
78. Park, V.M., Bravo, R.R., Price, J.O., Simpson. J.L. & Elias, S. (1994) A model system using fetal hemoglobin to distinguish fetal cells enriched from maternal blood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 731, 133-135.
79. Pembrey, M.E., Weatherall, D.J. & Clegg, J.B. (1973) Maternal synthesis of haemoglobin F in pregnancy. Lancet, i, 1350-1354.
80. Petit, T., Dommergues, M., Socie, G., Dumez, Y., Gluckman, E. & Brison, O. (1997) Detection of maternal cells in human fetal blood during the third trimester of pregnancy using allele-specific PCR amplification. British Journal of Haematology, 98, 767-771.
81. Petit, T., Gluckman, E., Carosella, E., Brossard, Y., Brison, O. & Socie, G. (1995) A highly sensitive polymerase chain reaction method reveals the ubiquitous presence of maternal cells in human umbilical cord blood. Experimental Hematology, 23, 1601-1605.
82. Pezzolo, A., Santi, F., Pistoia, V. & DeBiasio, P. (1997) Prenatal diagnosis of triploidy using fetal cells in maternal circulation. Prenatal Diagnosis, 17, 389.
83. Price. J.O., Elias, S., Wachtel, S.S., Klinger, K., Dockter, M.A., Tharapel, A., Shulman, L.P., Philips, O.P., Meyers, C.M., Shook, D. & Simpson, J.L. (1991) Prenatal diagnosis using fetal cells from maternal blood by multi-parameter flow cytometry. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 165, 1731-1737.
84. Reading, J.P., Huffman, J.L., Wu, J.C., Palmer, F.T., Harton, G.L., Sisson, M.E., Keyvanfar, K., Gresinger, T.H., Cochrane, W.J., Fallon, L.A., Menapace-Drew, G.F., Cummings, E.A., Jones, S.L., Black, S.H., Schulman, J.D. & Levinson, G. (1995) Nucleated erythrocytes in maternal blood: quantity and quality of fetal cells in enriched populations. Human Reproduction, 10, 2510-2515.
85. Sargent. I.L., Johansen, M., Chau, S. & Redma, C.W.G. (1994) Clinical experience: isolating trophoblasts from maternal blood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 731, 154-161.
86. Saunders, A.M., Zarowitz, M.A. & Harrell, P. (1997) Fetal cells from maternal blood: design of a product. Labatory Haematology, 3, 282-291.
87. Savion, S., Carp, H., Shepshelovich, J., Irlin, J., Kostykov, M., Fein, A. & Toder, V. (1997) Use of antibodies against the human antigen of erythroblasts for the detection of nucleated erythrocytes in the maternal circulation. Biology of the Neonate, 71, 126-130.
88. Schröder, J.. Tiilikainen, A. & de la Chapelle, A. (1974) Fetal leukocytes in maternal circulation after delivery. Transplantation, 17, 346-360.
89. Schmörl, G. (1893) Pathologisch-anatomische untersuchungen ueber Publereklapmsie. Vogel, Leipzig.
90. Sekizawa, A., Farina, A., Zhen, D.K., Wang, J.Y., Falco, V.M., Elmes, S. & Bianchi, D.W. (1999) Improvement of fetal cell recovery from maternal blood: suitable density gradient. Fetal Diagnosts and Therapy, in press.
91. Sekizawa, A., Kimura, T., Sasaki, M., Makamura, S., Kobayashi, T. & Sato, T. (1996a) Prenatal diagnosis of Duchenne muscular dystrophy using a single fetal nucleated erythrocyte in maternal blood. Neurology, 46, 1350-1353.
92. Sekizawa, A., Taguchi, A., Watanabe, A., Kimura, T., Saibo, H., Yanaihara, T. & Sato, T. (1998) Analysis of HLA-DQ alpha sequences for prenatal diagnosis in single fetal cells from maternal blood. Human Genetics, 102, 393-396.
93. Sekizawa, A., Watanabe, A., Kimura, T., Saito, H., Yanaihara, T. & Sato, T. (1996b) Prenatal diagnosis of fetal RhD blood type using a single fetal nucleated erythrocyte from maternal blood. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 87, 501-505.
94. Simpson, J.L. & Elias, S. (1993) Isolating fetal cells from maternal blood: advances in prenatal diagnosis through molecular technology. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270, 2357-2361.
95. Simpson. J.L., Lewis, D.E., Bischoff, F.Z. & Elias, S. (1995) Isolating fetal nucleated red blood cells from maternal blood: the Baylor experience 1995. Prenatal Diagnosis, 15, 907-912.
96. Sitar, G., Manenti, L., Farina, A., Lanatl, V., Mascheretti, P., Forabosco, A., Montanari, L. & Ascari, E. (1997) Characterization of the biophysical properties of human erythroblasts as a preliminary step to the isolation of fetal erythroblasts from maternal blood for noninvasive prenatal genetic investigation. Haematologica, 82, 5-10.
97. Slunga Tallberg, A., El Rifai, W. & Keinanen, M. (1996) Maternal origin of transferrin receptor positive cells in venous blood of pregnant women. Clinical Genetics, 49, 196-199.
98. Slunga Tallberg, A., El Rifai, W., Keinanen, M., Ylinen, K., Kurki, T., Klinger, K., Ylikorkarla, O. & Knuutila, S. (1995) Maternal origin of nucleated erythrocytes in peripheral blood of pregnant women. Human Genetics, 96, 53-57.
99. Snijders, R.J.M., Noble, P., Sebire, N., Souka, A., Nicolaides, K.H. and The Fetal Medicine Foundation First Trimester Screening Group (1998) UK Multicentre project on assessment of risk of trisomy 21 by maternal age and fetal nuchal-translucency thickness at 10-14 weeks of gestation. Lancet, 351, 343-346.
100. Socie, G., Gluckman, E., Carosella, E., Brossard, Y., Lafon, C. & Brison, O. (1994) Search for maternal cells in human umbilical cord blood by polymerase chain reaction amplification of two minisatellite sequences. Blood, 83, 340-344.
101. Sohda, S., Arinami, T., Hamada, H., Nakauchi, H., Hamaguchi, H. & Kubo, T. (1997) The proportion of fetal nucleated red cells in maternal blood: estimation by FACS analysis. Prenatal Diagnosis, 17, 743-752.
102. Steele, C.D., Wapner, R.J., Smith, J.B., Haynes, M.K. & Jackson, L.G. (1996) Prenatal diagnosis using fetal cells isolated from maternal peripheral blood: a review. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology, 39. 801-813.
103. Suzumori, K., Adachi, R., Okada, S., Narukawa, T., Yagami, Y. & Sonta, S. (1992) Fetal cells in the maternal circulation: detection of Y-sequence by gene amplification. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 80, 150-154.
104. Takabayashi, H., Kuwabara, S., Ukita, T., Ikawa, K., Yamafuji, K. & Igarashi, T. (1995) Development of non-invasive fetal DNA diagnosis from maternal blood. Prenatal Diagnosis, 15, 74-77.
105. Tanke, H.J., Oosterwijk, J.C., Mesker, W.E., Ouwerkerk-van Velzen, M.C., Knepfle, C.F., Wiesmeyer, C.C., van Ommen, G.J., Kanhai, H.H. & Vrolijk, J. (1996) Detection of 'rare event' fetal erythroblasts in maternal blood using automated microscopy. Early Human Development, 47, (Suppl.), S89-S93.
106. Thomas, M.R., Tutschek, B., Frost, A., Rodeck, C.H., Yazdani, N., Craft. I. & Williamson, R. (1995) The time of appearance and disappearance of fetal DNA from the maternal circulation. Prenatal Diagnosis, 15, 641-646.
107. Tse, D.B., Anderson, P., Goldbard, S., Gown, A.M., Hawes, C.S. & Donenfeld, A. (1994) Characterization of trophoblast reactive monoclonal antibodies by flow cytometry and their application for fetal cell isolation. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 731, 162-169.
108. Tyndall, A. & Gratwohl, A. (1998) Microchimerism: friend or foe? Nature Medicine, 4, 386-388.
109. Valerio, D., Aiello, R. & Altieri, V. (1997a) Isolation of fetal erythroid cells from maternal blood based on expression of erythropoietin receptors. Molecular Human Reproduction, 3, 451-455.
110. Valerio, D., Aiello, R., Altieri, V., Malato, P., Fortunato, A. & Canazio, A. (1996) Culture of fetal erythroid progenitor cells from maternal blood for non-invasive prenatal diagnosis. Prenatal Diagnosis, 16, 1073-1082.
111. Valerio, D., Altieri, V., Antonucci, F.R. & Aiello, R. (1997b) Characterization of fetal haematopoietic progenitors circulating in maternal blood of seven aneuploid pregnancies. Prenatal Diagnosis, 17, 1159-1169.
112. Van Wijk, I.J., Van Vugt, J.M.G., Mulders, M.A.M., Könst, A.A.M., Weima, S.M. & Oudejans, C.B.M. (1996) Enrichment of fetal trophoblast cells from the maternal peripheral blood followed by detection of fetal deoxyribonucleic acid with a nested X/Y polymerase chain reaction. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 174, 871-878.
113. Von Koskul, H. & Gahmberg, N. (1995) Fetal erythroblasts from maternal blood identified with 2,3-biphosphate and in situ hybridization (ISH) using Y-specific probes. Prenatal Diagnosis, 15, 149-154.
114. Wachtel, S., Elias, S., Price, J., Wachtel, G., Phillips. O., Shulman, L., Meyers, C., Simpson, J.L. & Dockter, M. (1991) Fetal cells in maternal circulation: isolation by multiparameter flow cytometry and confirmation by polymerase chain reaction. Human Reproduction, 6, 1466-1469.
115. Wachtel, S.S., Sammons, D., Manley, M., Wachtel, G., Twitty, G., Utermohlen, J., Phillips, O.P., Shulman, L.P., Taron, D.J., Muller, U.R., Koeppen, P., Ruffalo, T.M., Addis, K., Porrew, R., Murata-Collins, J., Parker, N.B. & McGavran, L. (1996) Fetal cells in maternal blood: recovery by charge flow separation. Human Genetics, 98, 162-166.
116. Wachtel, S.S., Sammons, D., Twitty, G., Utermohlen, J., Trolley, E., Phillips, O. & Shulman, L.P. (1998) Charge flow separation: quantification of nucleated red blood cells in maternal blood during pregnancy. Prenatal Diagnosis, 18, 455-463.
117. Wald, N.J., Cuckle, H.S. & Densen, J.W. (1988) Maternal serum screening for Down's syndrome in early pregnancy. British Medical Journal, 297, 883-888.
118. Wald, N.J.. Densem, J.W., George, L., Muttukrishna, S. & Knight, P.G. (1996) Prenatal screening for Down's syndrome using inhibin-A as a serum marker. Prenatal Diagnosis, 16, 143-153.
119. Walknowska, J., Conte, F.A. & Grumbach, M.M. (1969) Practical and theoretical implications of fetal/maternal lymphocyte transfer. Lancet, i, 1119-1122.
120. Watanabe, A., Sekizawa, A., Taguchi, A., Saito, H., Yanaihara, T., Shimazu, M. & Matsuda, I. (1998) Prenatal diagnosis of ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency by using a single nucleated erythrocyte from maternal blood. Human Genetics, 102, 611-615.
121. Wessman, M., Ylinen, K. & Knuutila, S. (1992) Fetal granulocytes in maternal venous blood detected by in situ hybridization. Prenatal Diagnosis, 12, 993-1000.
122. Yeoh, S.C., Sargent. I.L., Redman, C.W.G., Wordsworth, B.P. & Thein, S.L. (1991) Detection of fetal cells in maternal blood. Prenatal Diagnosis, 11, 117-123.
123. Zhen, D.K., Wang, J.Y., Falco, V.M., Weber, W., Delli-Bovi, L. & Bianchi, D.W. (1998) Poly-FISH: a technique of repeated hybridizations that improves cytogenetic analysis of fetal cells in maternal blood. Prenatal Diagnosis, 18, 1181-1185.
124. Zheng, Y.L., Carter, N.P., Price, C.M., Colman, S.M., Milton, P.J., Hackett, G.A., Greaves, M.F. & Ferguson-Smith, M.A. (1993) Prenatal diagnosis from maternal blood: simultaneous immunophenotyping and FISH of fetal nucleated erythrocytes isolated by negative magnetic cell sorting. Journal of Medical Genetics, 30, 1051-1056.
125. Zheng, Y.L., DeMaria, M.A., Zhen, D.K., Vadnais, T.J. & Bianchi, D.W. (1995) Flow sorting of fetal erythroblasts using intracytoplasmic anti-fetal hemoglobin: preliminary observations on maternal samples. Prenatal Diagnosis, 15, 897-905.
126. Zheng, Y.L., Zhen, D.K., DeMaria, M.A., Berry, S.M., Wapner, R.J., Evans, M.I., Copeland, D., Williams, J.M. & Bianchi, D.W. (1997) Search for the optimal fetal cell antibody: results of immunophenotyping studies using flow cytometry. Human Genetics, 100, 35-42.