What is apoptosis? Relevance in coronary heart disease and infarction;Apoptose-was ist das? Bedeutung bei koronarer herzkrankheit und infarkt

Herz

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 196-210

  Holtz, Jürgen ^a   Heinrich, Holger ^b  

^a MARTIN LUTHER UNIVERSITÄT HALLE WITTENBERG   (Germany)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Losses of cardiomyocytes; Mitochondria; Myocardial ischemia

Indexed keywords

CASPASE; INTERLEUKIN 1; PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE;

APOPTOSIS; CHROMATIN STRUCTURE; ENZYME ACTIVATION; HEART INFARCTION; HEART MUSCLE CELL; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; HUMAN TISSUE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

EID: 0032983297     PISSN: 03409937     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/bf03044962     Document Type: Review

References (173)

1. Aderka D, Engelmann H, Maor Y, et al. Stabilization of the bioactivity of tumor necrosis factor by its soluble receptors. J Exp Med 1992;175:323-9.
2. Alnemri ES, Livingston DJ, Nicholson DW, et al. Human ICE/CED-3 Protease nomenclature. Cell 1996;87:171.
3. Ashkenazi A, Dixit VM. Death receptors: signaling and modulation. Science 1998;281:1305-8.
4. Ballestar E, Abad C, Franco L. Core histones are glutaminyl substrates for tissue transglutaminase. J Biol Chem 1996;271: 18817-24.
5. Baracos VE, DeVivo C, Hoyle DHR, et al. Activation of the ATP-ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in skeletal muscle of cachectic rats bearing a hepatoma. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 1995;268:E996-1006.
6. Bartling B, Holtz J, Darmer D. Contribution of myocyte apoptosis to myocardial infarction? Basic Res Cardiol 1998;93:71-84.
7. Berger NA. Cellular response to DNA damage: the role of poly(ADP-ribose) in the cellular response to DNA damage. Radiat Res 1985;101:4-15.
8. Best PJM, Hasdai D, Sangiorgi G, et al. Apoptosis: basic concepts and implications in coronary artery disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999;19:14-22.
9. Beutler B, Milsark IW, Cerami A. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor: production, distribution and metabolic fate in vivo. J Immunol 1985;135:3972-7.
10. Bevers EM, Comfurius P, Zwaal RF. Changes in membran phospholipid distribution during platelet activation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1983;736:57-66.
11. Bigda J, Beletsky I, Brakebusch C, et al. Dual role of the p75 tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor in TNF cytotoxicity. J Exp Med 1994;180:445-60.
12. Bodmer JE, Burns K, Schneider P, et al. TRAMP, a novel apoptosis-mediating receptor with sequence homology to tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 and Fas (APO-1/CD95). Immunity 1997;6:79-88.
13. Bossy-Wetzel E, Newmeyer DD, Green DR. Mitochondrial cytochrome c release in apoptosis occurs upstream of DEVD-specific caspase activation and independently of mitochondrial transmembrane depolarization. Embo J 1998;17:37-49.
14. Buja LM, Entman ML. Modes of myocardial cell injury and cell death in ischemic heart disease. Circulation 1998;98:1355-7.
15. Burkart V, Wang ZQ, Radons J, et al. Mice lacking the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase gene are resistant to pancreatic beta-cell destruction and diabetes development induced by streptozocin. Nature Med 1999;5:314-9.
16. Cai W, Devaux B, Schaper W, et al. The role of Fas/APO 1 and apoptosis in the development of human atherosclerotic lesions. Atherosclerosis 1997;131:177-86.
17. Cascino I, Papoff G, De Maria R, et al. Fas/Apo-1 (CD95)receptor lacking the intracytoplasmic signaling domain protects tumor cells from Fas-mediated apoptosis. J Immunol 1996;156:13-7.
18. Cerretti DP, Kozlosky CJ, Mosley B, et al. Molecular cloning of the interleukin-1 bet converting enzyme. Science 1992;256:97-100.
19. Chancerelle Y, Mathieu J, Kergonou JF. Recognition and elimination of senescent erythrocytes: implications of antibodies specific for malonic dialdehyde-protcin adducts, as demonstrated by flow cytometry. Biochem Mol Biol Int 1994;34:1259-70.
20. Chicheportiche Y, Bourdon PR, Xu H, et al. TWEAK, a new secreted ligand in the tumor necrosis factor family that weakly induces apoptosis. J Biol Chem 1997;272:32401-10.
21. Chinnaiyan AM, et al. Signal transduction by DR3, a death domain-containing receptor related to TNFR-1 and CD95. Science 1996:274:990-2.
22. Ciechanover A. The ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic pathway. Cell 1994;79:13-21.
23. Connor J, Pak CH, Schroit AJ. Exposure of phosphatidylserine in the outer leaflet of human red blood cells: relationship to cell density, cell age and clearance by mononuclear cells. J Biol Chem 1994;269:2239-404.
24. Crowe PD, Walter BN, Mohler KM, et al. A metalloprotease inhibitor blocks shedding of the 80-kD TNF receptor and TNF processing in T lymphocytes. J Exp Med 1995;181:1205-8.
25. De Groote D, Grau GE, Dehart I, et al. Stabilization of functional tumor necrosis factor-a by its soluble TNF receptors. Eur Cytokine Netw 1993;4:359-62.
26. Degli-Esposti MA, Dougall WC, Smolak PJ, et al. The novel receptor TRAIL-R4 induces NF-kB and protects against TRAlL-mediated apotosis, yet retains an incoplete death domain. Immunity 1997;7:813-20.
27. Degli-Esposti MA, Smolak PJ, Walczak H, et al. Cloning and characterization of TRAIL-R3, a novel member of the emerging TRAIL receptor family. J Exp Med 1997;186:1165-70.
28. Devaux PF. Static and dynamic lipid asymmetry in cell membranes. Biochemistry 1991;30:1163-73.
29. Diaz C, Schroit AJ. Role of translocases in the generation of phosphatidyl asymmetry. J Membrane Biol 1996;151:1-9.
30. Didenko VV, Hornby PJ. Presence of double-stranded breaks with single-base 3′ overhangs in cells undergoing apoptosis but not necrosis. J Cell Biol 1996;135:1369-76.
31. Eliasson MJL, Sampei K, Mandir AS, et al. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase gene disruption rendes mice resistant to cerebral ischemia. Nature Med 1997;3:1089-95.
32. Elsaesser A, Schlepper M, Kloevekorn WP, et al. Hibernating myocardium: an incomplete adaptation to ischemia. Circulation 1997;96:2920-31.
33. Enari M, Sakahira H, Yokoyama H, et al. A caspase-activated DNase that degrades DNA during apoptosis, and its inhibitor ICAD. Nature 1998;391:43-50.
34. Engelmann H, Novick D, Wallach D. Two tumor necrosis factor-binding proteins purified from human urine: evidence for immunological cross-reactivity with cell surface tumor necrosis factor receptors. J Biol Chem 1990;1531-6.
35. Fabisiak JP, Kagan VE, Ritov VB, et al. Bcl-2 inhibits selective oxidation and externalization of phopsphatidylserine during paraquat-induced apoptosis. Am J Physiol 1997;272:C675-84.
36. Fadok VA, Bratton DL, Konowal A, et al. Macrophages that have ingested apoptotic cells in vitro inhibit proinflammatory cytokine production through autocrine/paracrine mechanisms involving TGF-β, PGE2, and PAF. J Clin Invest 1998;101:890-8.
37. Fadok VA, Savill JS, Haslett C, et al. Different populations of macrophages use either the vitronectin receptor or the phosphatidylserine receptor to recognize and remove apoptotic cells. J Immunol 1992;149:4029-35.
38. Fisher DE. Apoptosis in cancer therapy: crossing the threshold. Cell 1994;78:539-42.
39. Gottesman MM, Pastan I. Biochemistry of multidrug resistance mediated by the multidrug transporter. Ann Rev Biochem 1993;62:385-427.
40. Grimm LM, Goldberg AL, Poirier GG, et al. Proteasomes play an essential role in thymocyle apoptosis. Embo J 1996;15: 3835-44.
41. Gross A, Yin XM, Wang K, et al. Caspase cleaved BID targets mitochondria and is required for cytochrome c release, while BCL-XL prevents this release but not tumor necrosis-R1/Fas death. J Biol Chem 1999;274:1156-63.
42. Hakem R, Hakem A, Duncan GS, et al. Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo. Cell 1998;94: 339-52.
43. Han DKM, Chaudhary PM, Wright ME, et al. MRIT, a novel death-effector domain-containing protein, interacts with caspases and bcl-xL and initiates cell death. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:11333-8.
44. Han Z, Bhalla K, Pantazis P, et al. Cif (Cytochrome c efflux-inducing factor) activity is regulated by bcl-2 and caspase and correlates with the activation of Bid. Mol Cell Biol 1999;19:1381-9.
45. Han Z, Li G, Bremner TA, et al. A cytosolic factor is required for mitochondrial cytochrome c efflux during apoptosis. Cell Death Diff 1998;5:469-79.
46. Hengartner MO. CED-4 is a stranger no more. Nature 1997; 388:714-5.
47. Hershko A, Ciechanover A. The ubiquitin system for protein degradation. Ann Rev Biochem 1992;61:761-807.
48. Higgins CF. Flip-flop: the transmembrane translocation of lipids. Cell 1994;79:393-5.
49. Hirsch T, Marzo I, Kroemer G. Role of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore in apoptosis. Biosci Rep 1997;17: 67-76.
50. Hohmann HP, Remy R, Brockhaus M, et al. Two different cell types have different major receptors for human tumor necrosis factor (TNF alpha). J Biol Chem 1989;264:14927-34.
51. Horvitz HR, Shaham S, Hengartner MO. The genetics of programmed cell death in the nernatode Caenorhabditis elegans. Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 1994;59: 354-77.
52. Hughes PE, Alexi T, Schreiber SS. A role for the tumour suppressor gene p53 in regulating neuronal apoptosis. NeuroRep 1997;8:v-xii.
53. Itoh N, Yonehara S, Ishii A, et al. The polypeptide encoded by the cDNA for human surface antigen Fas can mediate apoptosis. Cell 1991;66:233-43.
54. Jiang Y, Woronicz JD, Goeddel DV. Prevention of constitutive TNF receptor signaling by silencer fo death domains. Science 1999;283:543-6.
55. Kajstura J, Cheng W, Reiss K, et al. Apoptotic and necrotic myocyte cell death are independent contributing variables of infarct size in rats. Lab Invest 1995;74:86-107.
56. Kerr JFR. Shrinkage necrosis: a distinct mode of cellular death. J Pathol 1971;105:13-20.
57. Kerr JFR, Wyllie AH, Currie AR. Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br J Cancer 1972;26:239-57.
58. Kischkel FC, Hellbardt S, Behrmann I, et al. Cytotoxicity-dependent APO-1 (Fas/CD95)-associated proteins form a death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) with the receptor. Embo J 1995;14:5579-88.
59. Kitson J, Raven T, Jiang YP, et al. A death-domain-containing receptor thai mediates apoptosis. Nature 1996;384:372-5.
60. Kluck RM, Bossy-Wetzel E. Green DR. et al. The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria: a primary site for bcl-2 regulation of apoptosis. Science 1997;275:1132-6.
61. Kluck RM, Martin SJ, Hoffman BM, et al. Cytochrome c activation of CPP32-like proteolysis plays a critical role in a Xenopus cell-free apoptosis system. Embo J 1997;16:4639-49.
62. Knepper-Nicolai B, Savill J, Brown SB. Constitutive apoptosis in human neutrophils requires synergy between calpains and the proteasome downstream of caspases. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:30530-6.
63. Ko LJ, Prives C. P53: puzzle and paradigm. Genes Develop 1996;10:1054-72.
64. Koopman G, Reutelinsperger CP, Kuijten GA, et al. Annexin V for flow cytometric detection of phosphatidylserine expression on B cells undergoing apoptosis. Blood 1994;84.
65. Kroemer G, Dallaporta B, Resche-Rigon M. The mitochondrial death/life regulator in apoptosis and necrosis. Ann Rev Physiol 1998;60:619-42.
66. Kroemer G, Zamzami N, Susin SA. Mitochondrial control of apoptosis. Immunol Today 1997;18:44-51.
67. Kuida K, Haydar TF, Kuan CY, et al. Reduced apoptosis and cytochrone c-mediated caspase activation in mice lacking caspase 9. Cell 1998;94:325-37.
68. Kuida K, Zheng TS, Na S, et al. Decreased apoptosis in the brain and premature lethality in CPP32-deficient mice. Nature 1996;384:368-72.
69. Liu C, Cheng J, Mountz JD. Differential expression of human Fas mRNA species upon peripheral blood mononuclear cell activation. Biochem J 1995;310:957-63.
70. Liu X, Kim CN, Yang J, Jemmerson R, Wang X Induction of apoptotic program in cell-free extracts: requirement for dATP and cytochrome c. Cell 1996;86:147-57.
71. Liu X, Zou H, Slaughter C, et al. DFF, a heterodimeric protein that functions downstream of caspase 3 to trigger DNA fragmentation during apoptosis. Cell 1997;89:175-84.
72. MacFarlane M, Ahmad M, Srinivasula SM, et al. Identification and molecular cloning of two novel receptors for the cytotoxic ligand TRAIL. J Biol Chem 1997;272:25417-20.
73. Marchetti P, Castedo M, Susin SA, et al. Mitochondrial permeability transition is a central coordinating event of apoptosis. J Exp Med 1996;184:1155-60.
74. Marsters SA, Sheridan JP, Donahue CJ, et al. Apo-3, a new member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family, contains a death domain and activates apoptosis and NF-kB. Curr Biol 1996; 6:1669-76.
75. Marsters SA, Sheridan JP, Pitti RM, et al. Identification of a ligand for the death-domain-containing receptor apo3. Curr Biol 1998;8:525-8.
76. Marsters ST, Sheridan JP, Pitti RM, et al. A novel recepter for Apo2L/TRAIL contains a truncated death domain. Curr Biol 1997;7:1003-6.
77. Martin SJ, Green DR. Protease activation during apoptosis: death by a thousand cuts. Cell 1995;82:349-52.
78. Martin SJ, Reutelinsperger CP, Mcgahon AJ, et al. Early redistribution of plasma membrane phosphatidylserine is a general feature of apoptosis regardless of the initiating stimulus: inhibition by overexpression of Bcl-2 and Abl. J Exp Med 1995;182:1545-56.
79. Marzo I, Brenner C, Zamzami N, et al. Bax and adenin nucleotidetranslocator cooperate in the mitochondrial control of apoptosis. Science 1998;281:2027-31.
80. Marzo I, Brenner C, Zamzami N, et al. The permeability pore complex: A target for apoptosis regulation by caspases and Bcl-2-related proteins. J Exp Med 1998;187:1261-71.
81. Marzo I, Susin SA, Petit PX, et al. Caspases disrupt mitochondrial membrane barrier function. FEBS Lett 1998;427:198-202.
82. Medina R, Wing SS, Goldberg AL. Increase in levels of polyubiquitin and proteasome mRNA in skeletal muscle during starvation and denervation athrophy. Biochem J 1995;307:631-7.
83. Merry DE, Korsmeyer SJ. Bcl-2 gene family in the nervous system. Ann Rev Neurosci 1997;20:245-67.
84. Milch WE, Goldberg AL. Mechanisms of muscle wasting. The role of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1897-905.
85. Mohler KM, Torrance DS, Smith CA, et al. Soluble tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptors are effective therapeutic agents in lethal endotoxemia and function simultaneously as both TNF carriers and TNF antagonists. J Immunol 1993;151:1548-61.
86. Molketin JD, Lu JR, Antos CL, et al. A calcineurin-dependent transcriptional pathway for cardiac hypertrophy. Cell 1998;93:215-28.
87. Molketin JD, Olson EN. GATA-4: a novel transcriptional regulator of cardiac hypertrophy? Circulation 1997;96:3833-5.
88. Mongkolsapaya J, Cowper AE, Xu XN, et al. Lymphocyte inhibitor of TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand): a new receptor protecting lymphocytes from the death ligand TRAIL. J Immunonol 1997;160:3-6.
89. Morinaga T, Nakagawa N, Yasuda T, et al. Cloning and characterization of the gene encoding human osteoprotegerin/osteoclastogenesis-inhibitory factor. Eur J Biochem 1998;254:685-91.
90. Moröy T, Zoernig M. Regulators of life and death: the bcl-2 gene family. Cell Physiol Biochem 1996;6:312-36.
91. Morrot G, Zachowski A, Devaux PF. Partial purification and characterization of the human erythrocyte Mg2+-ATPase: a candidate aminophospholipid translocase. FEBS Lett 1990;266: 29-32.
92. Muellberg J, Durie FH, Otten-Evans C, et al. A metalloprotease inhibitor blocks shedding of the IL-6 receptor and the p60 TNF receptor. J Immunol 1995;155:5198-205.
93. Nagy L, Thomazy V, Davies PJA. Transglutaminases: effector molecules in physiologic cell death. Cancer Bull 1994;46:136-40.
94. Nakamura N, Ban T, Yamaji K, et al. Localization of the apoptosis-inducing activity of lupus anticoagulant in an annexin V-binding antibody subset. J Clin Invest 1998;101: 1951-9.
95. Nicotera P, Leist P. Energy supply and the shape of death in neurons and lymphoid cells. Cell Death Diff 1997;4:435-42.
96. O'Brien IEW, Reutelinsperger CPM, Holdaway CM. The use of annexin-V and TUNEL to monitor the progression of apoptosis in plants. Cytometry 1997;29:28-33.
97. Oehm A, Behrmann I, Falk W, et al. Purification and molecular cloning of the APO-1 cell surface antigen, a new member of the TNF/NGF receptor superfamily: sequence identity with the Fas antigen. J Biol Chem 1992;267:10709-15.
98. Oh H, Fujio Y, Kunisada K, et al. Activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase through glycoprotein 130 induces protein kinase B and p70S6 kinase phosphorylation in cardiac myocytes. J Biol Chem 1998;273:9703-10.
99. Oh H, Kunasada K, Matsui H, et al. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase transduces survival and hypertrophic signals via Akt/MAP kinase and p70 S6 kinase pathways in cardiac myocytes. Circulation 1998:98:I-462.
100. Oh H, Kunisada K, Funamoto M, et al. Activation of gp 130 inhibits doxorubicin induced cell death by Bcl-xL/caspase 3 interaction and PI 3-kinase/Akt pathway in cardiac myocytes. Circulation 1998;98:1-462.
101. Orrenius S, Burgess DH, Hampton MB, et al. Mitochondria as the focus of apoptosis research. Cell Death Diff 1997;4:427-8.
102. Orth K, Chinnaiyan AM, Garg M, et al. The CED-3/ICE-like protease Mch2 is activated during apoptosis and cleaves the death substrate lamin A. J Biol Chem 1996;271:16443-6.
103. Pan G, Bauer JH, Haridas V, et al. Identification and functional characterization of DR6, a novel death domain-containing TNF receptor. FEBS Lett 1998;431:351-6.
104. Pan G, Ni J, Wei YF, et al. An antagonist decoy receptor and a death domain-containing receptor for TRAIL. Science 1997; 277:815-8.
105. Pan G, Ni J, Yu GL, et al. TRUNDD, a new member of the TRAIL receptor family that antagonizes TRAIL signalling. FEBS Lett 1998;424:41-5.
106. Papoff G, Cascino I, Eramo A, et al. An N-terminal domain shared by Fas/Apo-1 (CD95) soluble variants prevents cell death in vitro. J Immunol 1996;156:4622-4630.
107. Piacentini M. Tissue transglutaminase: a candidate effector element of physiological cell death. Curr Top Microbiol 1995;200:163-76.
108. Pitti RM, Marsters SA, Lawrence DA, et al. Genomic amplification of a decoy receptor for Fas ligand in lung and colon cancer. Nature 1998;396:699-703.
109. Pitti RM, Marsters SA, Ruppert S, et al. Induction of apoptosis by Apo-2 ligand, a new member of the tumor necrosis factor cytokine family. J Biol Chem 1996;271:12687-90.
110. Polyak K, Xia Y, Zweier JL, et al. A model for p53-induced apoptosis. Nature 1997;389:300-5.
111. Porter AG, Ng P, Jänicke RU. Death substrates come alive. BioEssays 1997;19:501-7.
112. Raff MC. Social controls on cell survival and cell death. Nature 1992;356:397-400.
113. Rao L, Perez D, White E. Lamin proteolysis facilitates nuclear events during apoptosis. J Cell Biol 1996;135:1441-55.
114. Ray CA, Black RA, Kronheim SR, et al. Viral inhibitors of inflammation: cowpox virus encodes an inhibitor of the interleukin-1β converting enzyme. Cell 1992:69:597-604.
115. Reutelinsperger CPM, Hornstra G, Hemker H. Isolation an partial purification of a novel anticoagulant from arteries of human umbilical cord. Eur J Biochem 1985;151:625-9.
116. Sadoul R, Fernandez PA, Quiquerez AL, et al. Involvement of the proteasome in the programmed cell death of NGF-deprived sympathetic neurons. Embo J 1996;15:3845-52.
117. Salvesen GS. Serpins and programmed cell death. New York: Plenum Press, 1997:177-83.
118. Schall TJ, Lewis M, Koller KJ, et al. Molecular cloning and expression of a receptor for human tumor necrosis factor. Cell 1990;61:361-70.
119. Scheffner M, Nuber U, Huibregtse JM. Protein ubiquitmation involving an E1-E2-E3 enzyme ubiquitin thioester cascade. Nature 1995;373:81-3.
120. Schneider P, Bodmer JL, Thome M, et al. Characterization of two receptors for TRAIL. FEBS Lett 1997;416:329-34.
121. Schuchmann M, Hess S, Bufler P, et al. Functional discrepancies between tumor necrosis factor and lymphotoxin a explained by trimer stability and distinct receptor interactions. Eur J Immunol 1995;25:2183-9.
122. Schumann H, Heinrich H, Bartling B, et al. Apoptosis in the overloaded myocardium: potential stimuli and modifying signals. Basic Res Cardiol (in press).
123. Screaton GR, Monkolsapaya J, Xu XN, et al. TRICK2, a new alternatively spliced receptor that transduces the cytotoxic signal from TRAIL. Curr Biol 1997;7:693-6.
124. Screaton GR, Xu XN, Olsen AL, et al. LARD: a new lymphoid-specific death domain containing receptor regulated by alternative pre-mRNA splicing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94: 4615-9.
125. Sedlak TW, Oltvai ZN, Yang E, et al. Multiple bcl-2 family members demonstrate selective dimerization with bax. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:7834-8.
126. Shall S. ADP-ribose in DNA repair: a new component of DNA excision repair. Adv Rad Biol 1984;11:1-69.
127. Sheridan JP, Marsters SA, Pitti RM, et al. Control of TRAIL-induced apoptosis by a family of signaling and decoy receptors. Science 1997;277:818-21.
128. Simonet WS, Lacey DL, Dunstan CR, et al. Osteoprotegerin: a novel secreted protein involved in the regulation of bone density. Cell 1997;89:309-19.
129. Skulachev PV. Uncoupling. New approaches to an old problem of bioenergetics. Biochim Biophys Acta 1998;1363.
130. Smit JJM, Schinkel AH, Oude Elferink RPJ, et al. Homozygous disruption of the murine mdr2 P-glycoprotein gene leads to a complete absence of phospholipid from bile and to liver disease. Cell 1993;75:451-62.
131. Smith CA, Davis T, Anderson D, et al. A receptor for tumor necrosis factor defines an unusual family of cellular and viral proteins. Science 1990;248:1019-23.
132. Solomon V, Lecker SH, Goldberg AL. The N-end rule pathway catalyzes a major fraction of the protein degradation in skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem 1998;273:25216-22.
133. Song HY, Dunbar JD, Donner DB. Aggregation of the intracellular domain of the type 1 tumor necrosis factor receptor defined by the two-hyprid system. J Biol Chem 1994;269: 22492-5.
134. Squier MK, Miller AC, Malkinson AM, et al. Calpain activation in apoptosis. J Cell Physiol 1994;159:229-37.
135. Squier MK, Sehnert AJ, Sellins KS, et al. Calpain and calpastatin regulate neutrophil apoptosis. J Cell Physiol 1999;178:311-9.
136. Steemans M, Goossens V, Van de Craen M, et al. A caspase-activated factor (CAF) induces mitochondrial membrane depolarization and cytochrome c release by a nonproteolytic mechanism. J Exp Med 1998;188:2193-8.
137. Stratton JR, Dewhurst TA, Kasina S, et al. Selective uptake of radiolabeled annexin V on acute porcine left atrial thrombi. Circulation 1995;92:3113-21.
138. Stroh C, Schulze-Osthoff K. Death by a thousand cuts: an ever increasing list of caspase substrates. Cell Death Diff 1998;5: 997-1000.
139. Suda T, Takahashi T, Goldstein P, et al. Molecular cloning and expression of the Fas ligand, a novel member of the tumor necrosis factor family. Cell 1993;75:1169-78.
140. Susin SA, Lorenzo HK, Zamzami N, et al. Mitochondrial release of caspase-2 and -9 during the apoptotic process. J Exp Med 1999;189:381-93.
141. Susin SA, Lorenzo HK, Zamzami N, et al. Molecular characterization of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor. Nature 1999;397:441-6.
142. Takahashi A, Alnemri ES, Lazebnik YA, et al. Cleavage of lamin A by Mch2a but not CPP32: multiple interleukin 1β-converting enzyme-related proteases with distinct substrate recognition properties are active in apoptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93:8395-400.
143. Tanaka M, Itai T, Adachi M, et al. Downregulation of Fas ligand by shedding. Nature Med 1998;4:31-6.
144. Tartaglia AT, Pennica D, Goeddel DV. Ligand passing the 75-kDa tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor recruits TNF for signaling by the 55-kDa TNF receptor. J Biol Chem 1993;268: 18542-8.
145. Tawa NE, Odessey R, Goldberg AL. Inhibitors of the proteasome reduce the accelerated proteolysis in atrophying rat skeletal muscles. J Clin Invest 1997;100:197-203.
146. Thompson CB. Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease. Science 1995;267:1456-62.
147. Thornberry NA, Lazebnik Y. Caspases: enemies within. Science 1998;281:1313-6.
148. Trauth BC, Klas C, Peters AMJ, et al. Monoclonal antibody-mediated tumor regression by induction of apoptosis. Science 1989;245:301-5.
149. Tsujimoto Y. Apoptosis and necrosis: intracellular ATP levels as a determinant for cell death modes. Cell Death Diff 1997;4:429-34.
150. Uren AG, Pakusch M, Hawkins CJ, et al. Cloning and expression of apoptosis inhibitory protein homologs that function to inhibit apoptosis and/or bind tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93:4974-8.
151. Uren AG, Vaux DL. Viral inhibitors of apoptosis. Vitam Horm 1997;53:175-93.
152. Van de Craen M, Van Loo G, Pype S, et al. Identificatin of new caspase homologue: caspase-14. Cell Death Diff 1998;5:838-46.
153. Van den Eijnde SM, Boshart L, Reutelingsperger CPM, et al. Phosphatidylserine plasma membrane asymmetry in vivo: a pancellular phenomenon which alters during apoptosis. Cell Death Diff 1997;4:311-6.
154. Van den Eijnde SM, Luijsterburg AJM, Boshart L, et al. In situ detection of apoptosis during embryogenesis with annexin V: from whole mount to ultrastructure. Cytometry 1997;29:313-20.
155. Van Engeland M, Nieland LJW, Ramaekers FCS, et al. Annexin V-affinity assay: a review on an apoptosis detection system based on phosphatidylserine exposure. Cytometry 1998;31:1-9.
156. Van Heerde WL, De Groot PG, Reutelinsperger CPM. The complexity of the phospholipid binding protein annexin V. Thromb Haemost 1995;73:172-9.
157. Vanags DM, Porn-Ares MI, Coppola S, et al. Protease involvement in fodrin cleavage and phosphatidylserine exposure in apoptosis. J Biol Chem 1996;271:31075-85.
158. Wallach D. Cell death induction by TNF: a matter of self control. Trends Cell Biol 1997;22:107-9.
159. Wallach D. Placing death under control. Nature 1997;388:123-6.
160. Wallach D, Kovalenko AV, Vasfolomeev EE, et al. Death-inducing functions of ligands of the tumor necrosis factor family: a Sanhedrin verdict. Curr Opin Immunol 1998;10:279-88.
161. Wang BY, Ho HKV, Lin PS, et al. Regression of atherosclerosis: role of nitric oxide. Circulation 1999;99:1236-41.
162. Wang ZQ, Stingl L, Morrison C, et al. PARP is important for genomic stability but dispensable in apoptosis. Genes Dev 1997; 11:2347-58.
163. Weiss T, Grell M, Siemienski K, et al. TNFR80-dependent enhancement of TNFR60-induced cell death is mediated by TNFR60-associated factor 2 and is specific for TNFR60. J Immunol 1998;161:3136-42.
164. Williamson P, Bevers EM, Smeets EF, et al. Continuous analysis of the mechanism of activated transbilayer lipid movements in platelets. Biochemistry 1995;34:10448-55.
165. Woo M, Hakem R, Soengas MS, et al. Essential contribution of caspase 3/CPP32 to apoptosis and its associated nuclear changes. Genes Dev 1998;12:806-10.
166. Wyllie AH, Kerr JFR, Currie AR. Cell death: the significance of apoptosis. Int Rev Cytol 1980;68:251-306.
167. Xue D, Horvitz HR. Inhibition of the Caenorhabditis elegans cell-death protcase CED-3 by a CED-3 cleavage site in baculovirus p35 protein. Nature 1995;377:248-51.
168. Yamamoto H, Uchigata Y, Okamoto H. Streptozocin and alloxan induce DNA strand breaks and Poly (ADP-ribose) synthase in pancreatic islets. Nature 1981;294:284-6.
169. Yang E, Korsmeyer SJ. Molecular thanatopsis: a discourse on the Bcl-2 family and cell death. Blood 1996;88:386-401.
170. Yang X, Chang HY, Baltimore D. Autoproteolytic activation of pro-caspases by olgimerization. Mol Cell 1998;1:319-25.
171. Yonehara S, Ishii A, Yonehara M. A cell-killing monoclonal antibody (anti-Fas) to a cell surface antigen downregulated with the receptor of tumor necrosis factor. J Exp Med 1989;169: 1747-56.
172. Zoratti M, Szabo I. The mitochondrial permeability transition. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995;1241:139-76.
173. Zou H, Henzel WJ, Liu X, et al. Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to c. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase-3. Cell 1997;90:405-13.