Reproductive and teratologic effects of low-frequency electromagnetic fields: A review of in vivo and in vitro studies using animal models

Teratology

Volumn 59, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 261-286

  Brent, Robert L ^a,b  

^a THOMAS JEFFERSON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NEMOURS ALFRED I DUPONT HOSPITAL FOR CHILDREN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABORTION; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; CELL DEATH; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHICK EMBRYO; CONFERENCE PAPER; DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; EMBRYO; EMBRYO CELL; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FETUS; INFERTILITY; MUTAGENESIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOLOGY; PREMATURITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REPRODUCTION; RISK; STILLBIRTH; TERATOGENESIS;

ABNORMALITIES, RADIATION-INDUCED; ANIMALS; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS; FEMALE; HUMANS; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; RADIATION DOSAGE; REPRODUCTION; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 0032945881     PISSN: 00403709     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9926(199904)59:4<261::AID-TERA12>3.0.CO;2-K     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (144)

1. Aaholt E, Flinn EA, Smith CW. 1981. Effects of low frequency magnetic fields on bacterial growth rate. Phys Med Biol 26:613-621.
2. Algers B, Hultgren J. 1987. Effects of long-term exposure to a 400-kV, 50-Hz transmission line on estrous and fertility in cows. Prev Vet Med 5:21-36.
3. Bardasano JL, Meyer AJ, Picazo L. 1986. Pineal cells with multipolar spindles in chicken embryos exposed to magnetic fields - first trials. Z MikroskAnat Forsch Lpz 100:85-92.
4. Beckman DA, Brent RL. 1986. Mechanism of known environmental teratogens: Drugs and chemicals. In: Brent RL, Beckman DA, editors. Clinics in perinatology. Vol 13. Philadelphia: WB Saunders. p 649-687.
5. Bellossi A. 1991. Effect of pulsed magnetic fields on leukemia-prone AKR mice. No effect on mortality through five generations. Leuk Res 15:899-902.
6. Berg BN. 1965. Dietary restriction and reproduction in the rat. J Nutr 87:344-348.
7. Berman E, Chacon L, House D, Koch BA, Koch WE, Leal J, Lovtrup S, Mantiply E, Martin AH, Martucci GI, Mild KH, Monahan JC, Sandstrom M, Shamsaifar K, Tell R, Trillo MA, Ubeda A, Wagner P. 1990. Development of chicken embryos in a pulsed magnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics 11:169-187.
8. Berman E. 1990. The developmental effects of pulsed magnetic fields on animal embryos. Reprod Toxicol 4:45-49.
9. Brent RL. 1960. The indirect effect of irradiation on embryonic development. II. Irradiation of the placenta. Am J Dis Child 100:103-108.
10. Brent RL. 1964. Drug testing in animals for teratogenic effects: Thalidomide in the pregnant rat. J Pediatr 64:762-770.
11. Brent RL. 1969. The direct and indirect effects of irradiation upon the mammalian zygote, embryo and fetus. In: Nishimura H, Miller JR, editors. Methods for teratological studies in experimental animals and man. Proceedings of the second international workshop in teratology, Kyoto, Japan, 1968. Tokyo: Igaku Shoin. p 63-75.
12. Brent RL. 1972. Drug testing for teratogenicity: Its implication, limitations and application to man. Adv Exp Med Biol 27:31-43.
13. Brent RL. 1978. Editorial: Method of evaluating alleged human teratogens. Teratology 17:183.
14. Brent RL. 1981. The prediction of human diseases from laboratory and animal tests for teratogenicity, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. In: Lasagna L, editor. Controversies in therapeutics. Philadelphia: WB Saunders. p 134-150.
15. Brent RL. 1985a. The magnitude of the problem of congenital malformations. In: Marois M, editor. Prevention of physical and mental congenital defects. Part A. The scope of the problem. New York: Alan R Liss. p 55-68.
16. Brent RL. 1985b. Methods for evaluating the alleged teratogenicity of environmental agents. In: Marois M, editor. Prevention of physical and mental congenital defects. Part C. Basic and medical science, education, and future strategies. New York: Alan R Liss. p 191-195.
17. Brent RL. 1986a. Evaluating the alleged teratogenicity of environmental agents. Clin Perinatol 13:609-613.
18. Brent RL. 1986b. The complexities of solving the problem of human malformations. In: Brent RL, Beckman DA, editors. Clinics in perinatology. Vol 13. Philadelphia: WB Saunders. p 491-503.
19. Brent RL. 1988. Predicting teratogenic and reproductive risks in humans from exposure to various environmental agents using in vitro techniques and in vivo animal studies. Cong Anom 28 (suppl 1):S41-S55.
20. Brent RL. 1992. Reproductive effects. In: Davis JG, Bennett WR, Brady JV, Brent RL, Gordis L, Gordon WE, Greenhouse SW, Reiter RJ, Stein GS, Susskind C, Trichopoulos D, editors. Health effects of low-frequency electric and magnetic fields, executive summary. Washington, DC: Oak Ridge Associated Universities Panel for the Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination, p 10-13.
21. Brent RL, Beckman DA, Jensh RP. 1986. The relationship of animal experiments in predicting the effects of intrauterine effects in the human. In: Kriegel H, Schmahl W, Gerber GB, Stieve FE, editors. Radiation risks to the developing nervous system. New York: Gustav Fisher, p 367-397.
22. Brent RL, Bolden BT. 1967a. The indirect effect of irradiation on embryonic development. III. The contribution of ovarian irradiation, uterine irradiation, oviduct irradiation and zygote irradiation to fetal mortality and growth retardation in the rat. Radiat Res 30:759-773.
23. Brent RL, Bolden BT. 1967b. The indirect effect of irradiation on embryonic development. IV. The lethal effects of maternal irradiation on the first day of gestation in the rat. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 125:709-712.
24. Brent RL, Bolden BT. 1968. Indirect effect of x-irradiation on embryonic development. V. Utilization of high doses of maternal irradiation on the first day of gestation. Radiat Res 36:563-570.
25. Brent RL, Holmes LB. 1988. Clinical and basic science lessons from the thalidomide tragedy: What have we learned about the causes of limb defects? Teratology 38:241-251.
26. Brent RL, McLaughlin MM. 1960. The indirect effect of irradiation on embryonic development. I. Irradiation of the mother while shielding the embryonic site. Am J Dis Child 100:94-102.
27. Brent RL, Gordon WE, Bennett WR, Beckman DA. 1993. Reproductive and teratologic effects of electromagnetic fields. Reprod Toxicol 7:535-580.
28. Buntenkotter S, Brinkman K, Zittlau E, Zwingleberg R. 1989. Results of teratological investigations on rats after exposure to magnetic fields (50 Hz). Int Symp High Volt Eng 6:1-4.
29. Cabanes J, Gary C. 1981. Direct perception of electric field. Conference Internationale des Grands Réseaux Eléctriques àHaute Tension Rep. 233-08.
30. Cameron IL, Hunter KE, Winters WD. 1985a. Retardation of embryogenesis by extremely low-frequency 60-Hz electromagnetic fields. Physiological chemistry and physics and medical. NMR 17:135-138.
31. Cameron IL, Lawrence WC, Lum JB. 1985b. Medaka eggs as a model system for screening potential teratogens. Prog Clin Biol Res 163C1:239-240.
32. Chandra S, Stefani S. 1979. Effect of constant and alternating magnetic fields on tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. In: Proceedings of the 18th annual Hanford life sciences symposium, Richland, Washington.
33. Chernoff N, Kavlock RJ. 1982. An in vivo teratology screen utilizing pregnant mice. J Toxicol Environ Health 10:541-550.
34. Cohen MM, Kunska A, Astemborski JA, McCulloch D, Paskewitz DA. 1986. Effects of low-level, 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells. I. Mitotic rate and chromosome breakage in human peripheral lymphocytes. Bioelectromagnetics 7:415-423.
35. Cooper LJ, Graves HB, Smith DT, Poznaniak DT, Majid H. 1981. Behavioral responses of pigeons to high-intensity 60-Hz electric fields. Behav Neural Biol 32:214-228.
36. Davis JG, Bennett WR, Brady JV, Brent RL, Gordis L, Gordon WE, Greenhouse SW, Reiter RJ, Stein GS, Susskind C, Trichopoulos D, editors. 1992. Health effects of low-frequency electric and magnetic fields. Washington, DC: Oak Ridge Associated Universities Panel for the Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination.
37. Delgado J, Leal J, Monteagudo J, Gracia M. 1982. Embryological changes induced by weak, extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields. JAnat 134:533-551.
38. Diebolt JR. 1978. The influence of electrostatic and magnetic fields on mutation in Drosophila melanogaster spermatozoa. Mutat Res 57:169-174.
39. Durfee WK, Glante PR, Muthukrishnan S. 1975. Extremely lowfrequency electric and magnetic fields in domestic birds. Part I. The influence of ELF, magnetic and electric fields upon hatchability and early development of chicks. NMRDC report, compilation of Navy-sponsored ELF biomedical and ecological research reports.
40. Fraser FC. 1977. Relationship of animal studies to man. In: Wilson JG, Fraser FC, editors. Handbook of teratology. New York: Plenum Press, p 75-76.
41. Frazier ME, Reese JA, Morris JE, Jostes RF, Miller DL. 1990. Exposure of mammalian cells to 60-Hz magnetic or electric fields: Analysis of DNA repair of induced, single-strand breaks. Bioelectromagnetics 11:229-234.
42. Free MJ, Kaune WT, Phillips RD, Cheng HC. 1981. Endocrinological effects of strong 60 Hz electric fields on rats. Bioelectromagnetics 2:105-121.
43. Frolen H, Svedenstal BM. 1989. The effect of a pulsed magnetic field on fetal development in the mouse: Complementing and expanding on a previously reported investigation. Swedish National Institute of Radiation Protection. SSI Report 493.88.
44. Goodman EM, Greenebaum B, Marron MT. 1976. Effects of extremely low frequency electromagenetic fields on Physarum polycephalum. Radiat Res 66:531-540.
45. Goodman R, Basset CAL, Henderson AS. 1983. Pulsing electromagnetic fields induce cellular transcription. Science 220:1283-1285.
46. Goodman EM, Sharpe PT, Greenebaum B, Marron MT. 1986. Pulsed magnetic fields alter the cell surface. FEBS Lett 199:275-278.
47. Goodman R, Henderson AS. 1988. Exposure of salivary gland cells to low frequency electromagnetic fields alters polypeptide synthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85:3928-3932.
48. Greenebaum B, Goodman EM, Marron MT. 1982. Magnetic field effects on mitotic cycle length in Physarum. Eur J Cell Biol 27:156-160.
49. Hansson HA. 1981. Lamellar bodies in Purkinje nerve cells experimentally induced by electric fields. Brain Res 216:187.
50. Hansson HA, Rozell B, Stemme S. 1987. Effects of experimental exposure to power-frequency electromagnetic fields on the nervous system. In: Anderson LE, Kelman BJ, Weigel RJ, editors. Interaction of biological systems with static and ELF electric and magnetic fields. Twenty-third Hanford Life Sciences Symposium, October. 1984. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest Laboratory, p 297.
51. Heinricks WL, Fong P, Flannery M, Heinrichs SC, Crooks LE, Spindle A, Pedersen RA. 1988. Midgestational exposure of pregnant BALB/c mice to magnetic resonance imaging conditions. Magnet Reson Imaging 6:305-314.
52. Hinsenkamp MA, Chiabrera A, Pilla AA, Bassett CAL. 1978. Cell behavior and DNA modification in pulsing electromagnetic fields. Acta Orthopaed Belg 44:636-650.
53. Iwasaki T, Ohara H, Matsumoto S, Matsudaira H. 1978. Test of magnetic sensitivity in three different biological systems. J Radiat Res 19:287-294.
54. Joshi MV, Khan MZ, Damle PS. 1978. Effect of magnetic field on chick morphogenesis. Differentiation 10:39-43.
55. Juutilainen J. 1986. Effects of low frequency magnetic fields on chick embryos. Dependence on incubation temperature and storage of the eggs. ELF magnetic fields, chick embryo, teratology, temperature. Z Naturforsch 41c: 111-115.
56. Juutilainen J, Liimatainen A. 1986. Mutation frequency in Salmonella exposed to weak 100-Hz magnetic fields. Hereditas 104:145-147.
57. Juutilainen J, Saali K. 1986. Development of chick embryos in 1-Hz to 100-kHz magnetic fields. Radiat Environ Biophys 25:135-140.
58. Juutilainen J, Harri M, Saali K, Lahtinen T. 1986. Effects of 100-Hz magnetic fields with various waveforms on the development of chick embryos. Radiat Environ Biophys 25:65-74.
59. Juutilainen J, Laara E, Saali K. 1987. Relationship between field strength and abnormal development in chick embryos exposed to 50-Hz magnetic fields. Int J Radiat Biol 5:787-793.
60. Kimmel CA, Buelke-Sam J, Adams J. 1985. Collaborative behavioral teratology study: Implications, current applications and future directions. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 7:699-673.
61. Kimmel GL, Kimmel CA, Francis EZ. 1986. Evaluation of maternal and developmental toxicity. Consensus Workshop on the evaluation of maternal and developmental toxicity. Teratogen Carcinog Mutagen 7:201-338.
62. Konermann G, Monig H. 1986. Studies on the influence of static magnetic fields on prenatal developmental of mice. Radiology 26:490-497.
63. Koundakjian EJ, Bournias-Vardiabasis N, Haggren W, Adey WR, Phillips JL. 1996. Exposure of Drosophila melanogaster embryonic cell cultures to 60-Hz sinusoidal magnetic fields: Expression of heat shock proteins 23 and 70. In Vitro Toxicol 9:281-290.
64. Kowalczuk CI, Saunders RD. 1990. Dominant lethal studies in male mice after exposure to a 50-Hz electric field. Bioelectromagnetics 11:129-137.
65. Kowalczuk CI, Robbins L, Thomas JM, Butland BK, Saunders RD. 1994. Effects of prenatal exposure to 50 Hz magnetic fields on development in mice. I. Implantation rate and fetal development. Bioelectromagnetics 15:349-361.
66. Kronenberg SS, Tenforde TS. 1979. Cell growth in a low-intensity, 60 Hz magnetic field. Prepared by the Office of Environment for the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract W1-7405-ENG-48.
67. Krueger WF, Giarola AJ, Bradley JW, Shrekenhamer A. 1975. Effects of electromagnetic fields on fecundity in the chicken. Ann NY Acad Sci 247:391-400.
68. Kubiak JZ, Tarkowski AK. 1985. Electrofusion of mouse blastomeres. Exp Cell Res 157:561-566.
69. Levengood WC. 1969. A new teratogenic agent applied to amphibian embryos. J Embryol Exp Morphol 21:23-31.
70. Liboff AR, William T Jr, Strong DM, Wistar R Jr. 1984. Time-varying magnetic fields: Effect on DNA synthesis. Science 223:818-820.
71. Maffeo S, Miller MW, Carstensen EL. 1984. Lack of effect of weak low frequency electromagnetic fields on chick embryogenesis. J Anat 4:613-618.
72. Maffeo S, Brayman AA, Miller MW, Carstensen EL, Ciaravino V, Cox C. 1988. Weak low frequency electromagnetic fields and chick embryogenesis: Failure to reproduce positive findings. J Anat 157:101-104.
73. Marino AA, Becker RO, Ullrich B. 1976. The effect of continuous exposure to low frequency electric fields on three generations of mice: A pilot study. Experientia 32:565-566.
74. Marino AA, Reichmanis M, Becker RO, Ullrich B, Cullen JM. 1980. Power frequency electric field induces biological changes in successive generations of mice. Experientia 36:309-311.
75. Marron MT, Goodman EM, Greenebaum B. 1975. Mitotic delay in the slime mould Physarum polycephalum induced by low intensity 60 and 75 Hz electromagnetic fields. Nature 254:66.
76. Martin AH. 1988. Magnetic fields and time dependent effects on development. Bioelectromagnetics 9:393-396.
77. Martin AH, Moses GC. 1995. Effectiveness of noise in blocking electromagnetic effects on enzyme activity in the chick embryo. Biochem Mol Biol Int 36:87-94.
78. Martucci GI, Gailey PC, Tell RA. 1984. Investigations of possible effects of weak, pulsed magnetic fields on the chick embryo. In Abstracts of the sixth annual meeting of the Bioelectromagnetics Society, July, Atlanta, GA.
79. Meyere RE, Aldrich TE, Easterly CE. 1989. Effects of noise and electromagnetic fields on reproductive outcomes. Environ Health Perspect 81:193-200.
80. Nahas GG, Boccalon H, Berryer P, Wagner B. 1975. Effects in rodents of a 1-month exposure to magnetic fields (200-1200 Gauss). Aviat Space Environ Med 46:1161.
81. National Academy of Sciences. 1996. Possible health effects of exposure to residential electric and magnetic fields. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, p 314.
82. Osbakken M, Griffith J, Taczanowsky P. 1986. A gross morphologic, histologie, hematologic and blood chemistry study of adult and neonatal mice chronically exposed to high magnetic fields. Magn Reson Med 3:502-517.
83. Ossenkopp KP. 1972. Maturation and open-field behavior in rats exposed prenatally to an ELF low-intensity rotating magnetic field. Psychol Rep 30:371-374.
84. Ozil JP, Modlinski JA. 1986. Effects of electric field on fusion rate and survival of 2-cell rabbit embryos. J Embryol Exp Morphol 96:221-228.
85. Pafkova' H, Jera'bek J, Tejnorov'a I, Bedna'r V. 1996. Developmental effects of magnetic field (50 Hz) in combination with ionizing radiation and chemical teratogens. Toxicol Lett 88:313-316.
86. Persinger MA. 1969. Open-field behavior in rats exposed prenatally to a low intensity-low frequency, rotating magnetic fields. Dev Psychobiol 2:168-171.
87. Persinger MA, Foster WS. 1971. A prenatal exposure to an ELF rotating magnetic field, ambulatory behavior and lunar distance at birth: A correlation. Psychol Rep 28:435-438.
88. Persinger MA, Foster WS. 1972. A prenatal exposure to an ELF rotating magnetic field and subsequent increase in conditioned suppression. Dev Psychobiol 5:269-274.
89. Portnov FG, Shakarins VF, Maiore DJ. 1975. Study of mutagenic effect of static electric fields in Drosophila melanogaster females. Genetika 11:177.
90. Prasad N, Wright DA, Ford JJ, Thornby JI. 1990. Safety of 4-T MR imaging study of effects on developing frog embryos. Radiology 174:251-253.
91. Ramon C, Ayaz M, Streeter DD Jr. 1981. Inhibition of growth rate of Escherichia coli induced by extremely low-frequency weak magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 2:285-289.
92. Reese JA, Jostes RF, Frazier ME. 1988. Exposure of mammalian cells to 60-Hz magnetic or electric fields: Analysis for DNA single-strand breaks. Bioelectromagnetics 9:237-249.
93. Richter HP, Scheurich P, Zimmerman U. 1981. Electric field-induced fusion of sea urchin eggs. Dev Growth Diff 23:479-486.
94. Robert E. 1997. Effects of EMF and RF on human reproduction. Review of epidemiologic studies. Presented at the Thirty-third Annual Meeting of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. The Effects of Pre-and Postconception Exposure to Radiation, April 2-3, 1997, Arlington, VA.
95. Rogers WR. 1989. Studies on the effects of 60-Hz electric and magnetic fields on neuroendocrine circadian rhythmicity in nonhuman primates. In: Conference on electromagnetic fields and circadian rhythmicity, Boston, MA.
96. Rommereim DN, Kaune WT, Buschbom RL, Phillips RD, Sikov MR. 1987. Reproduction and development in rats chronologically exposed to 60-Hz electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics 8:243-258.
97. Rommereim DN, Kaune WT, Anderson LE, Sikov MR. 1989. Rats reproduce and rear litters during chronic exposure to 150-kV/m, 60-Hz electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics 10:385-389.
98. Rommereim DN, Rommereim RL, Sikov MR, Buschbom RL, Anderson LE. 1990. Reproduction, growth, and development of rats during chronic exposure to multiple field strengths of 60-Hz electric fields. Fundam Appl Toxicol 14:608-621.
99. Rosenthal M, Obe G. 1989. Effects of 50-Hertz electromagnetic fields on proliferation and on chromosomal alterations in human peripheral lymphocytes untreated or pretreated with chemical mutagens. Mutat Res 210:329-335.
100. Rosenzweig S, Blaustein FM. 1970. Cleft palate in A/J mice resulting from restraint and deprivation of food and water. Teratology 3: 47-52.
101. Runner MN, Miller JR. 1956. Congenital deformity in the mouse as a consequence of fasting. Anat Rec 124:437-438.
102. Ryan BM, Mallett E Jr, Johnson TR, Ganger JR, McCormick DL. 1996. Developmental toxicity study of 60 Hz (power frequency) magnetic fields in rats. Teratology 54:73-83.
103. Sagan PM, Stell ME. 1985. How rats detect 60-Hz electric fields. In: Abstracts of the seventh annual meeting of the Bioeectromagnetics Society, San Francisco, CA.
104. Sagan PM, Stell ME, Bryan GK, Adely WR. 1987. Detection of vertical electric fields by rats. Bioelectromagnetics 8:303.
105. Saitoh M, Takahashi S. 1973. Changes of embryonic wastage during pregnancy in rats fed low and high energy diets. J Nutr 103:1652-1657.
106. Salzinger K, Freimark S, McCullough M, Phillips D, Birenbaum L. 1990. Altered operant behavior of adult rats after perinatal exposure to a 60-Hz electromagnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics 11:105-116.
107. Sandstrom M, Mild KH, Lovtrup S. 1987. Effects of weak pulsed magnetic fields on chick embryogenesis. In: Nave B, Wideback PG, editors. Work with display units. B.V. North Holland: Elsevier Scientific Publishers, p 135-140.
108. Schardein JL. 1985. Chemically induced birth defects. New York: Marcel Dekker.
109. Schardein JL. 1988. Teratologic testing: States and issues after two decades of evolution. Rev Environ Contain Toxicol 102:1-78.
110. Schardein JL. 1993. Chemically induced birth Defects. New York: Marcel Dekker.
111. Seto YJ, Majeau-Chargois D, Lymangrover JR, Dunlap WP, Walker CF, Hsieh ST. 1984. Investigation of fertility and in utero effects in rats chronically exposed to a high-intensity 60-Hz electric field. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 11:693-702.
112. Shepard TH. 1973. A catalog of teratogenic agents. Vol XV. 1st ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
113. Sienkiewicz ZJ, Robbins L, Haylock RGE, Saunders RD. 1994. Effects of prenatal exposure to 50 Hz magnetic fields on development in mice. II. Postnatal development and behavior. Bioelectromagnetics 15:363-375.
114. Sikov MR, Montgomery LD, Smith LG, Phillips RD. 1984. Studies on prenatal and postnatal development in rats exposed to 60-Hz electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics 5:101-112.
115. Sikov MR, Rommereim DN, Beamer JL, Buschbom RL, Kaune WT, Phillips RD. 1987. Developmental studies of Hanford miniature swine exposed to 60-Hz electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics 8:229-242.
116. Sisken BF, Fowler I, Mayaud C, Ryaby JP, Ryaby J, Pilla AA. 1986. Pulsed electromagnetic fields and normal chick development. J Bioelect 5:25-34.
117. Skipper HT, Schabel FM Jr. 1973. Quantitative and cytokinetic studies in experimental tumor models. In: Holland JF, Frei E III, editors. Cancer medicine. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. p 629-650.
118. Slikker W Jr. 1987. The role of metaboism in the testing of developmental toxicants. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 7:390-413.
119. Smith C. 1947a. Effects of maternal undernutrition upon the newborn infant in Holland (1944-1945). J Pediatr 30:229-243.
120. Smith C. 1947b. The effect of wartime starvation in Holland upon pregnancy and its product. Am J Obstet Gynecol 53:599-606.
121. Soeradi O, Tadjudin MK. 1986. Congenital anomalies in the offspring of rats after exposure of the testis to an electrostatic field. Int J Androl 9:152-160.
122. Steen HB, Ofted P. 1967. Lack of effect of constant magnetic fields on Drosophila egg hatching time. Experientia 23:814.
123. Stein Z, Susser M, Saenger G, Marolla F. 1975. Famine and human development. The Dutch hunger winter of 1944/45. New York: Oxford University.
124. Stern S, Laties VG, Stancampiano CV, Cox C, deLorge JO. 1983. Behavioral detection of 60 Hz electric fields by rats. Bioelectromagnetics 4:215.
125. Stern S, Laties VG. 1985. 60-Hz electric fields: Detection by female rats. Bioelectromagnetics 6:99-103.
126. Stuchly MA, Ruddick J, Villeneuve D, Robinson K, Reed B, Lecuyer DW, Tan K, Wong J. 1988. Teratological assessment of exposure to time-varying magnetic field. Teratology 38:461-466.
127. Szabo KT, Brent RL. 1974. Species differences in experimental teratogenesis by tranquilizing agents. Lancet 1:565.
128. Szabo KT, Brent RL. 1975. Reduction of drug-induced cleft palate in mice. Lancet 1:1296-1297.
129. Tabrah FL, Guernsey DL, Chou S-C, Batkin S. 1978. Effect of alternating magnetic fields (60-100 gauss, 60 Hz) on Tetrahymena pyriformis. TITJ Life Sci 8:73-77.
130. Terol FF, Panchon A. 1995. Exposure of domestic quail embryos to extremely low frequency magnetic fields. Int J Radiat Biol 68:321-330.
131. Tribukait B, Cekan E, Paulsson LE. 1986. Effects of pulsed magnetic fields on embryonic development in mice. In: Proceedings of the international scientific conference: Work with display units. Stockholm: Swedish National Board of Occupational Safety, p 68-70.
132. Tyndall DA. 1990. MRI effects on the teratogenicity of x-irradiation in the C57BL/6J mouse. Magn Reson Imag 8:423-433.
133. Tyndall DA. 1993. MRI effects on craniofacial size and crown-rump length in C57BL/6J mice in 1.5T fields. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 76:655-660.
134. Ubeda A, Leal J, Trillo MA, Jimenez MA, Delgado JMR. 1983. Pulse shape of magnetic fields influences chick embryogenesis. J Anat 137:513-536.
135. Vorhees CV. 1983. Behavioral teratogenicity testing as a method for screening for hazards to human health: A methodological approach. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 5:469-474.
136. Warkany J. 1945. Manifestations of prenatal nutritional deficiency. Vitam Horm 3:73-103.
137. Warkany J. et al. 1963. Conference on prenatal effects of drugs. Commission on Drug Safety Bull, p 1-3.
138. Whitson GL, Carrier WL, Francis AA, Shin CC, Georghiou S, Regan JD. 1986. Effects of extremely low frequency (ELF) electric fields on cell growth and DNA repair in human skin fibroblasts. Cell Tissue Kinet 19:39-47.
139. Wiley MJ, Corey P, Kavet R, Charry J, Agnew D, Harvey S, Walsh M. 1992. The effects of continuous exposure to pulsed 20 KHZ sawtoothed magnetic fields on the litters of CD 1 mice. Teratology 46:391-398.
140. Wilson JG. 1965. Methods for administering agents and detecting malformations in experimental animals. In: Wilson JG, Warkany J, editors. Teratology. Principles and techniques. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p 263-277.
141. Wilson JG. 1973. Environment and birth defects. New York: Academic Press.
142. Yip YP, Capriotti C, Talagala SL, Yip JW. 1994. Effects of MR exposure at 1.5T on early embryonic development of the chick. J Magn Res Imag 4:742-748.
143. Zervins A. 1973. Chick embryo development in a 26-kHz electromagnetic field. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 34:120-127.
144. Zusman IP, Yaffe HP, Ornoy A. 1990. Effects of pulsing electromagnetic fields on the prenatal and postnatal development in mice and rats: in vivo and in vitro studies. Teratology 42:157-170.