Irrigation and water management in Turkmenistan: Past systems, present problems and future scenarios

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 51, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 21-41

  O'Hara, Sarah L ^a   Hannan, Tim ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANAL; IRRIGATION; MANAGEMENT PRACTICE; WATER MANAGEMENT;

AGRICULTURE; ARTICLE; BUILDING MATERIAL; CATERING SERVICE; COMMERCIAL PHENOMENA; CROP; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; HISTORY; LEGAL ASPECT; POLITICAL SYSTEM; SALINITY; SOCIOECONOMICS; TURKMENISTAN; USSR; WATER FLOW; WATER SUPPLY;

AGRICULTURE; COMMERCE; CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS; CROPS, AGRICULTURAL; FOOD SUPPLY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; POLITICAL SYSTEMS; SALINITY; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; TURKMENISTAN; USSR; WATER MOVEMENTS; WATER SUPPLY;

TURKMENISTAN;

EID: 0032903160     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139999100     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. IMF, Turkmenistan: Recent Economic Developments (Washington, IMF, May 1997).
2. V. V. Bartold, K istorii orosheniya Turkestana (St Petersburg, 1914); V. Dukhovny, Civilisation and Water Resources Management in Central Asia (report prepared for the World Bank, Tashkent, 1995).
3. V. V. Bartold, K istorii orosheniya Turkestana (St Petersburg, 1914); V. Dukhovny, Civilisation and Water Resources Management in Central Asia (report prepared for the World Bank, Tashkent, 1995).
4. A. Babaev, Problems of Aridland Development (Moscow University Press, 1996).
5. UNDP, Turkmenistan: Human Development Report 1996 (Ashgabat, 1997).
6. A. G. Babaev, 'Landscapes of Turkmenistan', in V. Fet & K. I. Atamuradov (eds), Biogeography and Ecology of Turkmenistan, Monographicae Biologicae, 72 (Kluwer Academic Press, 1994).
7. N. S. Orlovsky, 'Climate of Turkmenistan', in V. Fet & K. I. Atamuradov (eds), Biogeography and Ecology of Turkmenistan, Monographicae Biologicae, 72 (Kluwer Academic Press, 1994).
8. Ibid.
9. R. Lewis, 'Early irrigation in West Turkestan', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 56, 1966, pp. 467-491.
10. P. P. Micklin, The Water Management Crisis in Central Asia, The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies (University of Pittsburgh Center for Russian and East European Studies, 1991).
11. V. M. Masson, 'The First Farmers in Turkmenia', Antiquity, 35, 1961, pp. 203-213; D. R. Harris, V. M. Masson, Y. E. Berezkin, M. P. Charles, C. Gosden, G. C. Hillman, A. K. Kasparov, G. F. Korobkova, K. Kurbansakhatov, A. G. Legge & S. Limbrey, 'Investigating Early Agriculture in Central Asia: New Research at Jeitun, Turkmenistan', Antiquity, 67, 1993, pp. 324-338.
12. V. M. Masson, 'The First Farmers in Turkmenia', Antiquity, 35, 1961, pp. 203-213; D. R. Harris, V. M. Masson, Y. E. Berezkin, M. P. Charles, C. Gosden, G. C. Hillman, A. K. Kasparov, G. F. Korobkova, K. Kurbansakhatov, A. G. Legge & S. Limbrey, 'Investigating Early Agriculture in Central Asia: New Research at Jeitun, Turkmenistan', Antiquity, 67, 1993, pp. 324-338.
13. Lewis, 'Early Irrigation in West Turkestan'.
14. Amongst ancient Zoroastrians, people who worked on the irrigation network and reclaimed land from the desert were held in high esteem. Moreover, even at this early stage water was seen as a way of controlling and subjugating people. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus, for example, wrote how the Persian King had dammed one of the rivers and that 'from that time the live nations which were wont formally to have the use of the stream, losing the accustomed supply of water have been in great distress' and it was only after the people had grovelled to the king and 'paid him a large sum of money over and above the tribute that the water would be allowed to flow to their lands'.
15. Lewis, 'Early Irrigation in West Turkestan'.
16. Bartold, K istorii orosheniya Turkestana, provides a detailed summary of the various descriptions from Arabic historians and geographers. See also G. Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia and Central Asia from the Moslem Conquest to the time of Timur (Cambridge University Press, 1930).
17. Bartold, K istorii orosheniya Turkestana, provides a detailed summary of the various descriptions from Arabic historians and geographers. See also G. Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia and Central Asia from the Moslem Conquest to the time of Timur (Cambridge University Press, 1930).
18. There is some suggestion that the climate may have been slightly wetter during this period, resulting in higher discharge; however, it is unlikely that it was significantly greater.
19. Bartold, K istorii orosheniya Turkestana
20. From the Arabic mir - master and ab - water
21. The International Merv Project, The Ancient Cities of Merv, Turkmenistan (Institute of Archaeology, University of London, 1996).
22. A. Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (Zed Books, 1994).
23. Dukhovny, Civilisation and Water Resources Management.
24. B. T. Zakharchenko, Kratkaya istoriya postroeniya Niyazov-Kara-Kumskogo Kanala (Ashgabad, 1994).
25. R. A. Pierce, Russian Central Asia 1867-1917: A Study in Colonial Rule (University of California Press, 1960).
26. G. Gleason, 'The struggle for control over water in Central Asia: republican sovereignty and collective action', RFE/RL Report on the USSR, 21 June 1991, pp. 11-19; B. T. Zakharchenko, Voda v turkmenskoi zhizni (Ashgabad, 1990).
27. G. Gleason, 'The struggle for control over water in Central Asia: republican sovereignty and collective action', RFE/RL Report on the USSR, 21 June 1991, pp. 11-19; B. T. Zakharchenko, Voda v turkmenskoi zhizni (Ashgabad, 1990).
28. Zakharchenko, Kratkaya istoriya
29. Ibid.
30. Turkmenistanyn meliorasiya we suw hojalyk Misistrligi, Turkmenistanyn Prezidenti S.A. Nyyazow adyndaky, Garagum Kanaly, 40 yyl. (Ashgabad, 1994).
31. A. Patnaik, 'Agriculture and rural out-migration in Central Asia: 1960-1991', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 1, 1995, pp. 147-169.
32. Interview with Viktor Krochmal, Turkmengiprovodkhoz, November 1996.
33. The International Merv project directed by Georgina Hermann, UCL, London, has undertaken a detailed palacobotanical analysis of sediment from the site which indicates that there is no evidence of salinisation in the archaeological record despite continuous irrigation.
34. Zakharchenko, Voda v turkmenskoi zhizni.
35. There were five oblasti in Turkmenistan each with its own MLRWM directorate. Since independence oblasti have been renamed Velayats, although they have retained the same boundaries.
36. Gosagroprom, Polubnei rezhim selskokhozyistneh kultur po Turkmenskoi SSR (Ashgabad, 1990).
37. This information emerged during discussions with various officials of the MLRWM.
38. There is some confusion as to the actual amount of land that was under cultivation at the time of independence. The official figure is 1.3 million hectares, but unofficial sources suggest that the figure may have been much higher.
39. World Bank, Turkmenistan: A World Bank Country Study (Washington, 1994).
40. Turkmenistan was the first of the Central Asian republics to adopt a post-independence constitution. Article 9 of the constitution guarantees citizens the right to capital, land and other material and intellectual property. G. Gleason, 'Central Asia: Land Reform and the Ethnic Factor', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 3, 15 January 1993, pp. 28-33.
41. Inflation rates exceeded 1000% annually during 1993-95 before declining to 450% in 1996 (IMF, 1997). According to the EIU, 3rd quarter 1997, Turkmenistan has had the highest annual average inflation rate (992%) of all the former communist bloc.
42. The manat was introduced on 1 November 1993. The official exchange rate on introduction was 2 manat to US$1; by October 1994 it had fallen to 75 manat to US$1 and over the next 12 months depreciated to 1000 manat to the dollar. Since January 1996 the manat has been allowed to float and in April 1997 it was trading at 4470 to US$1 (Central Bank of Turkmenistan). The parallel market rate was 5500 manat.
43. S. Levine & R. Corzine, Financial Times, 22 August 1995, reported a three-year shortage of such staples as milk, flour and cooking oil. In November 1995 reserves of flour were so low that it was necessary to seek emergency supplies from international sources. In 1996 bread shortages resulted in demonstrations in May, although there is no official media coverage of this event, while in January 1997 the European Union announced that it was planning to provide Turkmenistan with 10 million ECU in structural food aid (SWB, 11 January 1997, G2).
44. S. Levine & R. Corzine, Financial Times, 22 August 1995, reported a three-year shortage of such staples as milk, flour and cooking oil. In November 1995 reserves of flour were so low that it was necessary to seek emergency supplies from international sources. In 1996 bread shortages resulted in demonstrations in May, although there is no official media coverage of this event, while in January 1997 the European Union announced that it was planning to provide Turkmenistan with 10 million ECU in structural food aid (SWB, 11 January 1997, G2).
45. Turkmenistan has gained a reputation for failing to meet contracts, which is causing some concern in the business community.
46. EIU, 3rd Quarter 1997.
47. T. Hannan & S. O'Hara, 'Managing Turkmenistan's Karakum Canal: problems and perspectives', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 39, 4, 1998, pp. 225-235.
48. MLRWM, Turkmenistan Irrigation and Water Management (1996).
49. Turkmenistan, 29 January 1997, p. 2; S. L. O'Hara, 'Irrigation and land degradation: implications for agriculture in Turkmenistan, Central Asia', Journal of Arid Environments, 37, 1997, pp. 165-179.
50. Turkmenistan, 29 January 1997, p. 2; S. L. O'Hara, 'Irrigation and land degradation: implications for agriculture in Turkmenistan, Central Asia', Journal of Arid Environments, 37, 1997, pp. 165-179.
51. Interviews with dayhan workers conducted between March and July 1997 highlighted a range of problems facing the farming communities at present. On one dayhan the hydro-technician discussed the problems of maintaining the system given the lack of operational equipment and commented that the diversion of excavators to open new lands for grain had exacerbated the problem. He informed us that the last time the drains on his farm had been cleaned was 1990 and he recognised that the lack of maintenance was already beginning to have an impact on soil and water quality. Brigade leaders were also concerned about the high level of non-functioning equipment, with one commenting that his command area of 120 hectares should have three tractors but currently had only one. The impact for farmers has been considerable as they have been unable to cultivate and fertilise their land and there is a high level of concern amongst farmers about the current state of the agricultural and irrigation system.
52. WARMAP, Water Resources Management and Agricultural Production in the Central Asian Republics is a major project funded by various international bodies such as the European Union and the World Bank.
53. Information provided by the Karakum Canal Management Board.
54. Ibid.
55. Many irrigation specialists are taking jobs in businesses operated by foreign investors. The tasks are often menial but the pay is usually greater than they were receiving working in the public sector.
56. Information provided by the Karakum Canal Management Board.
57. Average wages remain low and despite numerous wage increases in recent years inflation has substantially reduced purchasing power. Public sector salaries average $20-30 per month.
58. Wage arrears of 6-8 months are not uncommon at the moment, particularly in rural areas.
59. Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism?
60. S. Turkmenbashi, Ten Years of Prosperity: An Economic Program by the President of Turkmenistan (City of Ashgabat, 1994).
61. Interstate Council for the Aral Sea, Basic Provisions for the Development of the National Water Management Strategy of the Republic of Turkmenistan, Report of the National Group of Turkmenistan, 1996.
62. In 1994 for example, they purchased 90 combines and 150 tractors from John Deere at a total cost of US$53 million. Three hundred combines were purchased in 1995 from CASE at a cost of US$48 million, with a further 200 combines purchased from John Deere as part of a US$74 million contract in March 1997. Neitral'nyi Turkmenistan, 19 March 1997, p. 1.
63. There has been a marked decline in crop yields in recent years. Wheat yields, for example, fell from 2.22 tonnes per hectare in 1990 to 0.8 tonnes per hectare in 1996. Yields for other crops such as rice and cotton have also declined although not to the same extent as wheat. S. L. O'Hara, 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38, 7, 1997, pp. 430-444.
64. Interstate Council for the Aral Sea, Basic Provisions for the Development of the National Water Management Strategy of the Republic of Turkmenistan.
65. P. Goble & B. Pannier, 'A watershed in Central Asia', RFE/RL Newsline, 1, 82/1, 28 July 1997.
66. O'Hara, 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence'.
67. MLRWM, Turkmenistan Irrigation and Water Management.
68. IMF, Turkmenistan: Recent Economic Developments.
69. None of the farmers we spoke to during 1997 had received full payment for the 1996 harvest and were concerned that the same would happen in 1997. In August 1997 the president decreed that the central bank was to borrow money from abroad to pay wages and that the money would be repaid once the harvest had been sold. SWB Weekly Economic Report, 22 August 1997.
70. O'Hara, 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence'.
71. Nigel Meredith-Jones, personal communication, 1997.
72. O'Hara, 'Irrigation and land degradation'.
73. These figures are for a fully lined irrigation system.
74. EIU, 3rd Quarter 1997.
75. C. Haub, 'Population Changes in the Former Soviet Republics', Population Bulletin, 49, 4, 1994, pp. 1-48.
76. In the first instance individuals can rent land from the state, but will be required to grow and attain target yields in selected products, mainly grain and cotton. If after two years output performance is considered satisfactory, as determined by a national commission chaired by the president, the leased lands will become the farmer's property. Once they are given land ownership farmers will be allowed to grow any type of product they wish, although as yet no decision has been made on whether farmers will be able to sell on the free market.
77. O'Hara, 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence'.