Minority politics in the house of medicine: The physicians forum and the New York County Medical Society, 1938-1965

Journal of Public Health Policy

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 282-309

  Brickman, Jane Pacht ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH ECONOMICS; MEDICAL SOCIETY; MINORITY GROUP; ORGANIZATION; POLITICS; SOCIETY; UNITED STATES;

AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION; DELIVERY OF HEALTH CARE; HEALTH CARE REFORM; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; NEW YORK; POLITICS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0032882089     PISSN: 01975897     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3343402     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. See Paul Starr. The Social Transformation of Medicine. New York: Basic Books, 1982, pp. 267-68; James G. Burrow. AMA, Voice of American Medicine. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963, p. 192.
2. See Paul Starr. The Social Transformation of Medicine. New York: Basic Books, 1982, pp. 267-68; James G. Burrow. AMA, Voice of American Medicine. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963, p. 192.
3. Burrow, (n. I) AMA, pp. 206-07; 216-21, 247; Starr, (n. I), Transformation, pp. 274-76; "The Committee of Physicians for the Presentation of Certain Principles and Proposals in the Provision of Medical Care," New England Journal of Medicine II (1937): 798-800.
4. Burrow, (n. I) AMA, pp. 206-07; 216-21, 247; Starr, (n. I), Transformation, pp. 274-76; "The Committee of Physicians for the Presentation of Certain Principles and Proposals in the Provision of Medical Care," New England Journal of Medicine II (1937): 798-800.
5. Burrow, (n. I) AMA, pp. 206-07; 216-21, 247; Starr, (n. I), Transformation, pp. 274-76; "The Committee of Physicians for the Presentation of Certain Principles and Proposals in the Provision of Medical Care," New England Journal of Medicine II (1937): 798-800.
6. Burrow, (n. I) AMA, pp. 206-07; 216-21, 247; Starr, (n. I), Transformation, pp. 274-76; "The Committee of Physicians for the Presentation of Certain Principles and Proposals in the Provision of Medical Care," New England Journal of Medicine II (1937): 798-800.
7. For an explanation of the genesis of the Forum, see Ernst P. Boas ("EPB") to the editor, New York Medicine ("NYM"), October 25, 1952, the Papers of Ernst P. Boas, American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia "EPB Papers"; Walter J. Lear, "The Foundation is Built: 1939-1940,"; Physicians Forum Bulletin ("PFB"), September 1989, p. 10; EPB, "Statement before the Committee on Medicine and the Changing Order," 26 January 1944, EPB Papers.
8. For an explanation of the genesis of the Forum, see Ernst P. Boas ("EPB") to the editor, New York Medicine ("NYM"), October 25, 1952, the Papers of Ernst P. Boas, American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia "EPB Papers"; Walter J. Lear, "The Foundation is Built: 1939-1940,"; Physicians Forum Bulletin ("PFB"), September 1989, p. 10; EPB, "Statement before the Committee on Medicine and the Changing Order," 26 January 1944, EPB Papers.
9. For an explanation of the genesis of the Forum, see Ernst P. Boas ("EPB") to the editor, New York Medicine ("NYM"), October 25, 1952, the Papers of Ernst P. Boas, American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia "EPB Papers"; Walter J. Lear, "The Foundation is Built: 1939-1940,"; Physicians Forum Bulletin ("PFB"), September 1989, p. 10; EPB, "Statement before the Committee on Medicine and the Changing Order," 26 January 1944, EPB Papers.
10. Oliver Garceau. The Political Life of the American Medical Association. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1961; originally by Harvard University Press, 1941, pp. 148-62.
11. In "'Medical McCarthyism': The Physicians Forum and the Cold War," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 49 (1994): 380-415, I describe the impact of McCarthyism on the medical left and the efforts of the Forum to survive and combat the attacks.
12. The Manhattan Society, with more members than thirty-eight state medical societies, represented the largest local unit of the AMA until 1959, when it was superseded by the Los Angeles Medical Society. In 1959, the Society moved to offices in the Coliseum at 10 Columbus Circle; later it moved to 40 West 57th Street, and most recently to 15 East 26th Street.
13. See "130th Annual Report of the Medical Society of the County of New York ["MSCNY"], November 25, 1935"; "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, November 23, 1936"; "132nd Annual Report of the MSCNY, November 22, 1937." These reports are located in the offices of the MSCNY, ("Archives MSCNY"). (I am grateful to the generous staff, particularly Cheryl Malone, for allowing access to the material and for permitting so much of it to be reproduced.) In 1938, membership in the County Society entitled the individual to free legal defense in malpractice suits, to subscription to the State Medical Society's group insurance, and to the County's group accident and health insurance plan; see editorial, "Must We Say?" New York Medical Week ("NYMW"), September 24, 1938, p. 4. In November 1939, total membership stood at 5,005. See "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, 1940," p. 5, Archives MSCNY.
14. See "130th Annual Report of the Medical Society of the County of New York ["MSCNY"], November 25, 1935"; "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, November 23, 1936"; "132nd Annual Report of the MSCNY, November 22, 1937." These reports are located in the offices of the MSCNY, ("Archives MSCNY"). (I am grateful to the generous staff, particularly Cheryl Malone, for allowing access to the material and for permitting so much of it to be reproduced.) In 1938, membership in the County Society entitled the individual to free legal defense in malpractice suits, to subscription to the State Medical Society's group insurance, and to the County's group accident and health insurance plan; see editorial, "Must We Say?" New York Medical Week ("NYMW"), September 24, 1938, p. 4. In November 1939, total membership stood at 5,005. See "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, 1940," p. 5, Archives MSCNY.
15. See "130th Annual Report of the Medical Society of the County of New York ["MSCNY"], November 25, 1935"; "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, November 23, 1936"; "132nd Annual Report of the MSCNY, November 22, 1937." These reports are located in the offices of the MSCNY, ("Archives MSCNY"). (I am grateful to the generous staff, particularly Cheryl Malone, for allowing access to the material and for permitting so much of it to be reproduced.) In 1938, membership in the County Society entitled the individual to free legal defense in malpractice suits, to subscription to the State Medical Society's group insurance, and to the County's group accident and health insurance plan; see editorial, "Must We Say?" New York Medical Week ("NYMW"), September 24, 1938, p. 4. In November 1939, total membership stood at 5,005. See "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, 1940," p. 5, Archives MSCNY.
16. See "130th Annual Report of the Medical Society of the County of New York ["MSCNY"], November 25, 1935"; "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, November 23, 1936"; "132nd Annual Report of the MSCNY, November 22, 1937." These reports are located in the offices of the MSCNY, ("Archives MSCNY"). (I am grateful to the generous staff, particularly Cheryl Malone, for allowing access to the material and for permitting so much of it to be reproduced.) In 1938, membership in the County Society entitled the individual to free legal defense in malpractice suits, to subscription to the State Medical Society's group insurance, and to the County's group accident and health insurance plan; see editorial, "Must We Say?" New York Medical Week ("NYMW"), September 24, 1938, p. 4. In November 1939, total membership stood at 5,005. See "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, 1940," p. 5, Archives MSCNY.
17. See "130th Annual Report of the Medical Society of the County of New York ["MSCNY"], November 25, 1935"; "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, November 23, 1936"; "132nd Annual Report of the MSCNY, November 22, 1937." These reports are located in the offices of the MSCNY, ("Archives MSCNY"). (I am grateful to the generous staff, particularly Cheryl Malone, for allowing access to the material and for permitting so much of it to be reproduced.) In 1938, membership in the County Society entitled the individual to free legal defense in malpractice suits, to subscription to the State Medical Society's group insurance, and to the County's group accident and health insurance plan; see editorial, "Must We Say?" New York Medical Week ("NYMW"), September 24, 1938, p. 4. In November 1939, total membership stood at 5,005. See "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, 1940," p. 5, Archives MSCNY.
18. " 133 rd Annual Report of the Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, November 28, 1938." In 1940, average attendance at the eight regular meetings of the Society climbed to 502; see "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora 1940," Archives MSCNY. "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, December, 1938"; "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, January 9, 1939," Archives MSCNY. Martha M. Eliot, Chair of the Technical Section of the Interdepartmental Committee, and John P. Peters, Secretary of the Committee of Physicians for the Improvement of Medical Care, spoke on behalf of the National Health Program; two representatives of organized medicine took the AMA position; a panel of discussants, representing the two sides, participated as well. See "Minutes of the MSCNY, February 27, 1939," Archives.
19. " 133 rd Annual Report of the Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, November 28, 1938." In 1940, average attendance at the eight regular meetings of the Society climbed to 502; see "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora 1940," Archives MSCNY. "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, December, 1938"; "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, January 9, 1939," Archives MSCNY. Martha M. Eliot, Chair of the Technical Section of the Interdepartmental Committee, and John P. Peters, Secretary of the Committee of Physicians for the Improvement of Medical Care, spoke on behalf of the National Health Program; two representatives of organized medicine took the AMA position; a panel of discussants, representing the two sides, participated as well. See "Minutes of the MSCNY, February 27, 1939," Archives.
20. " 133 rd Annual Report of the Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, November 28, 1938." In 1940, average attendance at the eight regular meetings of the Society climbed to 502; see "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora 1940," Archives MSCNY. "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, December, 1938"; "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, January 9, 1939," Archives MSCNY. Martha M. Eliot, Chair of the Technical Section of the Interdepartmental Committee, and John P. Peters, Secretary of the Committee of Physicians for the Improvement of Medical Care, spoke on behalf of the National Health Program; two representatives of organized medicine took the AMA position; a panel of discussants, representing the two sides, participated as well. See "Minutes of the MSCNY, February 27, 1939," Archives.
21. " 133 rd Annual Report of the Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, November 28, 1938." In 1940, average attendance at the eight regular meetings of the Society climbed to 502; see "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora 1940," Archives MSCNY. "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, December, 1938"; "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, January 9, 1939," Archives MSCNY. Martha M. Eliot, Chair of the Technical Section of the Interdepartmental Committee, and John P. Peters, Secretary of the Committee of Physicians for the Improvement of Medical Care, spoke on behalf of the National Health Program; two representatives of organized medicine took the AMA position; a panel of discussants, representing the two sides, participated as well. See "Minutes of the MSCNY, February 27, 1939," Archives.
22. " 133 rd Annual Report of the Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, November 28, 1938." In 1940, average attendance at the eight regular meetings of the Society climbed to 502; see "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora 1940," Archives MSCNY. "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, December, 1938"; "Minutes of the Reference Committee of the Comitia Minora, January 9, 1939," Archives MSCNY. Martha M. Eliot, Chair of the Technical Section of the Interdepartmental Committee, and John P. Peters, Secretary of the Committee of Physicians for the Improvement of Medical Care, spoke on behalf of the National Health Program; two representatives of organized medicine took the AMA position; a panel of discussants, representing the two sides, participated as well. See "Minutes of the MSCNY, February 27, 1939," Archives.
23. See their letters to the editor in the January 14, 1939 issue of NYMW: Harry Hallarman, Bernard S. Denzer, Martha Mendell.
24. Howard Fox, "Inaugural Address," NYMW, January 28, 1939, p. 5.
25. "Attendance at the Executive Sessions is Necessary," NYMW, February 4, 1939, P. 6.
26. "The Referendum - Prepare to Vote," NYMW, 11 March 1939, p. 4. The Wagner bill proposed that the federal government make grants to the states so that they might devise medical care programs for wage earners. Telephone interview with Elvira Tirola, 12 October 1991; "Physicians Oppose Health Insurance," New York Times, 19 March 1939, Scrapbook of the MSCNY, Rare Book Room, New York Academy of Medicine ("NYAM"); "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, November 27, 1939," Archives MSCNY.
27. "The Referendum - Prepare to Vote," NYMW, 11 March 1939, p. 4. The Wagner bill proposed that the federal government make grants to the states so that they might devise medical care programs for wage earners. Telephone interview with Elvira Tirola, 12 October 1991; "Physicians Oppose Health Insurance," New York Times, 19 March 1939, Scrapbook of the MSCNY, Rare Book Room, New York Academy of Medicine ("NYAM"); "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, November 27, 1939," Archives MSCNY.
28. "The Referendum - Prepare to Vote," NYMW, 11 March 1939, p. 4. The Wagner bill proposed that the federal government make grants to the states so that they might devise medical care programs for wage earners. Telephone interview with Elvira Tirola, 12 October 1991; "Physicians Oppose Health Insurance," New York Times, 19 March 1939, Scrapbook of the MSCNY, Rare Book Room, New York Academy of Medicine ("NYAM"); "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, November 27, 1939," Archives MSCNY.
29. For example, on October 18, 1939 a special meeting, called upon the petition of 202 members, featured Bernard Denzer, who spoke of the prevalence of medical indigence and the failure of voluntary health insurance to address this need; Kingsley Roberts, a prominent New York surgeon and head of the Bureau of Cooperative Medicine, discussed prepaid comprehensive-care medical groups in centers joining the services of general practitioners, specialists, dentists, and nurses; and Ernst Boas spoke of the economic conditions which placed unprecedented pressure on New York City doctors to do uncompensated service. At the meeting, attended by 700 members, the Progressive Group won the creation of committees to deal with each of the three topics; the Progressives won two of five seats on each committee. "Minutes of Special Meeting MSCNY, October 18, 1939," Archives MSCNY.
30. "Minutes of the MSCNY, October 23, 1939," Archives MSCNY. EPB to Norman Boas, 3 October 1939, in Romana Javitz, ed. Letters of Ernst P. Boas, M.D. 1891-1955. New York: The Ernst P. Boas Memorial Fund, 1960, p. 22.
31. "Minutes of the MSCNY, October 23, 1939," Archives MSCNY. EPB to Norman Boas, 3 October 1939, in Romana Javitz, ed. Letters of Ernst P. Boas, M.D. 1891-1955. New York: The Ernst P. Boas Memorial Fund, 1960, p. 22.
32. "Insurgents Win in Medical Voting," New York Times, 26 November 1939, Scrapbook of the MSCNY, Rare Book Room, NYAM.
33. "Progressives in Row over Paid Leader," New York Times, 23 January 1940; "Aide Pay Increase Chagrins Doctors," New York Telegram, 23 January 1940; "Row Splits Medics," New York Herald Tribune, 23 January 1940, Scrapbook MSNY, Rare Book Room, NYAM.
34. "Progressives in Row over Paid Leader," New York Times, 23 January 1940; "Aide Pay Increase Chagrins Doctors," New York Telegram, 23 January 1940; "Row Splits Medics," New York Herald Tribune, 23 January 1940, Scrapbook MSNY, Rare Book Room, NYAM.
35. "Progressives in Row over Paid Leader," New York Times, 23 January 1940; "Aide Pay Increase Chagrins Doctors," New York Telegram, 23 January 1940; "Row Splits Medics," New York Herald Tribune, 23 January 1940, Scrapbook MSNY, Rare Book Room, NYAM.
36. For example, Progressives won approval of a resolution instructing County delegates to the State Society annual meeting to oppose the socalled "gag rule" as an invasion of the free action and expression of county societies. In May, at the State Society annual meeting, the gag rule amendment was defeated. See "Medical Body Kills County Gag Rule," New York Times, 7 May 1940. Scrapbook MSCNY, Rare Book Room, NYAM.
37. "Minutes of Special Meeting of the MSCNY, November 16, 1940," remarks of Dr. Martha Mendell, pp. 9-12.
38. The resolutions directed Medical Week to publish the program of the meeting, ordered the Comitia Minora, as Reference Committee, to prepare a report for a full meeting devoted to the subject of local medical care needs, and required the Committee on Public Relations to hold public hearings on the health and medical needs of New Yorkers. See "Minutes of the Special Meeting, November 16, 1940," Archives, MSCNY.
39. Interview with Ms. Tirola, (n. 12); "Doctors' Election Sharply Contested," New York Times, 26 November 1940; "Doctors' Vote Seen AMA Victory As Regular Ticket Scores Sweep," New York Times, 27 November 1940;
40. Interview with Ms. Tirola, (n. 12); "Doctors' Election Sharply Contested," New York Times, 26 November 1940; "Doctors' Vote Seen AMA Victory As Regular Ticket Scores Sweep," New York Times, 27 November 1940;
41. "Medical Society Conservatives Retain Control," New York Herald Tribune, 27 November 1940, Scrapbook MSCNY, Rare Book Room, NYAM;
42. "Minutes of the 134th Annual Meeting of the Medical Society of the County of New York, November 25, 1940," Archives MSCNY. Again in 1941, the independent ticket lost, but Boas found an "indirect victory": "Many of our Forum members have been put on important committees, even I. And up to now I have been anathema to the regulars in power - everything from a red to a skunk."
43. EPB to Normal Boas, January 14, 1941, in Javitz, (n. 14) Letters, p. 27.
44. The exceptional election was in 1957, when the Forum slate captured 48.7% of the vote, and Leo Mayer, the Forum candidate for president, lost by 34 votes. Leo Orris remembers the sense of panic among Forum members when the votes were tallied. What would they do if they actually had to run the Society? According to Orris, the Forum sponsored an independent ticket not to win but to bring issues to the floor and to keep leadership from becoming complacent. Interview with Dr. Leo Orris, 25 March 1992; "Election Results," NYMW, December 7, 1940, p. 4.
45. Two years later, in 1943, the Forum incorporated as a national organization, called simply the Physicians Forum. The charter allowed only physicians into the Forum fold. Membership in a county society, the AMA, or the National Medical Association was required. Walter J. Lear, "50 Years Ago - The New York Physicians Forum for the Study of Med-ical Care is Established." I am indebted to Dr. Lear for sharing this unpublished manuscript. (While the Forum eventually had chapters in thirty-eight medical societies, the Forum commanded no more than 1,000 members. Aside from the Manhattan group, Forum chapters in Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens, Chicago, Boston, and Washington, D.C. were its strongest.) EPB to Henry E. Sigerist, 2 December 1941, Papers of Henry E. Sigerist, Alan Mason Chesney Medical Archives of The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, ("Sigerist Papers, JHMI").
46. "A Front for What?" NYMW, March 15, 1941, p. 4. EPB, (n. 3).
47. After the County election of 1949, when Society members counted votes until 4:00 a.m., Forum members convinced regulars to hire an agency to install and monitor voting machines. In addition, as a result of pressure from the Forum, election inspectors were appointed representing each contending side. See "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 27, 1950," Archives MSCNY.
48. "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora, 1940," Archives MSCNY. Kirby Dwight, "Inaugural Address," NYM, 1 (February 20, 1945): 19.
49. "Annual Report of the Comitia Minora, 1940," Archives MSCNY. Kirby Dwight, "Inaugural Address," NYM, 1 (February 20, 1945): 19.
50. "The Dilemma of Free Choice I," NYM, 15 (June 20, 1959): 479. When the Forand bill - the forerunner to Medicare - came before Congress, the Society took the AMA position, branding it a backdoor approach to compulsory insurance. The County leadership argued that for the most part the elderly enjoyed good health and prosperity, and, like the AMA, that state and federal aid to localities for the purchase of voluntary insurance should follow "indigence testing." See "Forand - The 'Gut' Bill for 1960," NYM, 15 (October 5, 1960): 397; "Text of the AMA's Full Page Ad," NYM, 16 (September 20, 1960): 752-3. The Society supported the Kerr-Mills Act that paid for the medical care of elderly welfare recipients not receiving Social Security, and the "medically needy" as defined by the Act. EPB to Milton Roemer, July 17, 1950, EPB Papers; EPB, letter to the editor, New York Times, 17 January 1951, EPB Papers; Allan M. Butler, John P. Peters, and Ernst P. Boas, "Dear Doctor," 27 June 1950, EPB Papers.
51. "The Dilemma of Free Choice I," NYM, 15 (June 20, 1959): 479. When the Forand bill - the forerunner to Medicare - came before Congress, the Society took the AMA position, branding it a backdoor approach to compulsory insurance. The County leadership argued that for the most part the elderly enjoyed good health and prosperity, and, like the AMA, that state and federal aid to localities for the purchase of voluntary insurance should follow "indigence testing." See "Forand - The 'Gut' Bill for 1960," NYM, 15 (October 5, 1960): 397; "Text of the AMA's Full Page Ad," NYM, 16 (September 20, 1960): 752-3. The Society supported the Kerr-Mills Act that paid for the medical care of elderly welfare recipients not receiving Social Security, and the "medically needy" as defined by the Act. EPB to Milton Roemer, July 17, 1950, EPB Papers; EPB, letter to the editor, New York Times, 17 January 1951, EPB Papers; Allan M. Butler, John P. Peters, and Ernst P. Boas, "Dear Doctor," 27 June 1950, EPB Papers.
52. "The Dilemma of Free Choice I," NYM, 15 (June 20, 1959): 479. When the Forand bill - the forerunner to Medicare - came before Congress, the Society took the AMA position, branding it a backdoor approach to compulsory insurance. The County leadership argued that for the most part the elderly enjoyed good health and prosperity, and, like the AMA, that state and federal aid to localities for the purchase of voluntary insurance should follow "indigence testing." See "Forand - The 'Gut' Bill for 1960," NYM, 15 (October 5, 1960): 397; "Text of the AMA's Full Page Ad," NYM, 16 (September 20, 1960): 752-3. The Society supported the Kerr-Mills Act that paid for the medical care of elderly welfare recipients not receiving Social Security, and the "medically needy" as defined by the Act. EPB to Milton Roemer, July 17, 1950, EPB Papers; EPB, letter to the editor, New York Times, 17 January 1951, EPB Papers; Allan M. Butler, John P. Peters, and Ernst P. Boas, "Dear Doctor," 27 June 1950, EPB Papers.
53. "The Dilemma of Free Choice I," NYM, 15 (June 20, 1959): 479. When the Forand bill - the forerunner to Medicare - came before Congress, the Society took the AMA position, branding it a backdoor approach to compulsory insurance. The County leadership argued that for the most part the elderly enjoyed good health and prosperity, and, like the AMA, that state and federal aid to localities for the purchase of voluntary insurance should follow "indigence testing." See "Forand - The 'Gut' Bill for 1960," NYM, 15 (October 5, 1960): 397; "Text of the AMA's Full Page Ad," NYM, 16 (September 20, 1960): 752-3. The Society supported the Kerr-Mills Act that paid for the medical care of elderly welfare recipients not receiving Social Security, and the "medically needy" as defined by the Act. EPB to Milton Roemer, July 17, 1950, EPB Papers; EPB, letter to the editor, New York Times, 17 January 1951, EPB Papers; Allan M. Butler, John P. Peters, and Ernst P. Boas, "Dear Doctor," 27 June 1950, EPB Papers.
54. "The Dilemma of Free Choice I," NYM, 15 (June 20, 1959): 479. When the Forand bill - the forerunner to Medicare - came before Congress, the Society took the AMA position, branding it a backdoor approach to compulsory insurance. The County leadership argued that for the most part the elderly enjoyed good health and prosperity, and, like the AMA, that state and federal aid to localities for the purchase of voluntary insurance should follow "indigence testing." See "Forand - The 'Gut' Bill for 1960," NYM, 15 (October 5, 1960): 397; "Text of the AMA's Full Page Ad," NYM, 16 (September 20, 1960): 752-3. The Society supported the Kerr-Mills Act that paid for the medical care of elderly welfare recipients not receiving Social Security, and the "medically needy" as defined by the Act. EPB to Milton Roemer, July 17, 1950, EPB Papers; EPB, letter to the editor, New York Times, 17 January 1951, EPB Papers; Allan M. Butler, John P. Peters, and Ernst P. Boas, "Dear Doctor," 27 June 1950, EPB Papers.
55. Allan M. Butler, letter to the editor, The New England Journal of Medicine, 240 (1949): 117, in the Papers of Allan M. Butler, The Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine, Boston, ("Butler Papers").
56. "Medical Society Backs 'War Chest' in Session Marked by Name Calling," New York Times, 25 January 1949, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY.
57. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 23, 1950"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, May 22, 1950," Archives MSCNY. EPB, (n. 26, letter to the editor). "A Slight Difference of Opinion," NYM, 7 (February 5, 1951): 13.
58. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 23, 1950"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, May 22, 1950," Archives MSCNY. EPB, (n. 26, letter to the editor). "A Slight Difference of Opinion," NYM, 7 (February 5, 1951): 13.
59. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 23, 1950"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, May 22, 1950," Archives MSCNY. EPB, (n. 26, letter to the editor). "A Slight Difference of Opinion," NYM, 7 (February 5, 1951): 13.
60. "Four Years for Action on Voluntary Health Plans," NYM, 9 (February 20, 1953): 153; "Report of the Grievance Committee," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 379; "Report of the Comitia Minora, 1950," Archives MSCNY; "A Word of Greeting from the President," NYM, 8 (May 20, 1952): 13; "New Services in County Society," New York Times, 6 September 1950, Scrapbook MSCNY, MSCNY Archives; "President's Page," NYM, 9 (January 20, 1953): 15; also "President's Page," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 247: Gervais McAuliffe; "Farewell Address," NYM, 9 (July 20, 1953): 543. Memo from Bob Potter to the Comitia Minora and Trustees, "Recommendation of the Public Relations Committee to Establish Department of Press Relations, November 7, 1958," Archives MSCNY.
61. "Four Years for Action on Voluntary Health Plans," NYM, 9 (February 20, 1953): 153; "Report of the Grievance Committee," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 379; "Report of the Comitia Minora, 1950," Archives MSCNY; "A Word of Greeting from the President," NYM, 8 (May 20, 1952): 13; "New Services in County Society," New York Times, 6 September 1950, Scrapbook MSCNY, MSCNY Archives; "President's Page," NYM, 9 (January 20, 1953): 15; also "President's Page," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 247: Gervais McAuliffe; "Farewell Address," NYM, 9 (July 20, 1953): 543. Memo from Bob Potter to the Comitia Minora and Trustees, "Recommendation of the Public Relations Committee to Establish Department of Press Relations, November 7, 1958," Archives MSCNY.
62. "Four Years for Action on Voluntary Health Plans," NYM, 9 (February 20, 1953): 153; "Report of the Grievance Committee," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 379; "Report of the Comitia Minora, 1950," Archives MSCNY; "A Word of Greeting from the President," NYM, 8 (May 20, 1952): 13; "New Services in County Society," New York Times, 6 September 1950, Scrapbook MSCNY, MSCNY Archives; "President's Page," NYM, 9 (January 20, 1953): 15; also "President's Page," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 247: Gervais McAuliffe; "Farewell Address," NYM, 9 (July 20, 1953): 543. Memo from Bob Potter to the Comitia Minora and Trustees, "Recommendation of the Public Relations Committee to Establish Department of Press Relations, November 7, 1958," Archives MSCNY.
63. "Four Years for Action on Voluntary Health Plans," NYM, 9 (February 20, 1953): 153; "Report of the Grievance Committee," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 379; "Report of the Comitia Minora, 1950," Archives MSCNY; "A Word of Greeting from the President," NYM, 8 (May 20, 1952): 13; "New Services in County Society," New York Times, 6 September 1950, Scrapbook MSCNY, MSCNY Archives; "President's Page," NYM, 9 (January 20, 1953): 15; also "President's Page," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 247: Gervais McAuliffe; "Farewell Address," NYM, 9 (July 20, 1953): 543. Memo from Bob Potter to the Comitia Minora and Trustees, "Recommendation of the Public Relations Committee to Establish Department of Press Relations, November 7, 1958," Archives MSCNY.
64. "Four Years for Action on Voluntary Health Plans," NYM, 9 (February 20, 1953): 153; "Report of the Grievance Committee," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 379; "Report of the Comitia Minora, 1950," Archives MSCNY; "A Word of Greeting from the President," NYM, 8 (May 20, 1952): 13; "New Services in County Society," New York Times, 6 September 1950, Scrapbook MSCNY, MSCNY Archives; "President's Page," NYM, 9 (January 20, 1953): 15; also "President's Page," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 247: Gervais McAuliffe; "Farewell Address," NYM, 9 (July 20, 1953): 543. Memo from Bob Potter to the Comitia Minora and Trustees, "Recommendation of the Public Relations Committee to Establish Department of Press Relations, November 7, 1958," Archives MSCNY.
65. "Four Years for Action on Voluntary Health Plans," NYM, 9 (February 20, 1953): 153; "Report of the Grievance Committee," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 379; "Report of the Comitia Minora, 1950," Archives MSCNY; "A Word of Greeting from the President," NYM, 8 (May 20, 1952): 13; "New Services in County Society," New York Times, 6 September 1950, Scrapbook MSCNY, MSCNY Archives; "President's Page," NYM, 9 (January 20, 1953): 15; also "President's Page," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 247: Gervais McAuliffe; "Farewell Address," NYM, 9 (July 20, 1953): 543. Memo from Bob Potter to the Comitia Minora and Trustees, "Recommendation of the Public Relations Committee to Establish Department of Press Relations, November 7, 1958," Archives MSCNY.
66. "Four Years for Action on Voluntary Health Plans," NYM, 9 (February 20, 1953): 153; "Report of the Grievance Committee," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 379; "Report of the Comitia Minora, 1950," Archives MSCNY; "A Word of Greeting from the President," NYM, 8 (May 20, 1952): 13; "New Services in County Society," New York Times, 6 September 1950, Scrapbook MSCNY, MSCNY Archives; "President's Page," NYM, 9 (January 20, 1953): 15; also "President's Page," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 247: Gervais McAuliffe; "Farewell Address," NYM, 9 (July 20, 1953): 543. Memo from Bob Potter to the Comitia Minora and Trustees, "Recommendation of the Public Relations Committee to Establish Department of Press Relations, November 7, 1958," Archives MSCNY.
67. "Four Years for Action on Voluntary Health Plans," NYM, 9 (February 20, 1953): 153; "Report of the Grievance Committee," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 379; "Report of the Comitia Minora, 1950," Archives MSCNY; "A Word of Greeting from the President," NYM, 8 (May 20, 1952): 13; "New Services in County Society," New York Times, 6 September 1950, Scrapbook MSCNY, MSCNY Archives; "President's Page," NYM, 9 (January 20, 1953): 15; also "President's Page," NYM, 9 (May 20, 1953): 247: Gervais McAuliffe; "Farewell Address," NYM, 9 (July 20, 1953): 543. Memo from Bob Potter to the Comitia Minora and Trustees, "Recommendation of the Public Relations Committee to Establish Department of Press Relations, November 7, 1958," Archives MSCNY.
68. "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as a Reference Committee, February 9, 1948"; "Reject Bias Action in Medical Society," New York Times, 28 October 1948, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. For the articulation of the regulars' stance advocating local autonomy for county societies, see William B. Rawls, "The Discrimination Question," NYM, 4 (September 20, 1948): 24, 30. Forum member Martha Mendell challenged this position: "The continued exclusion of Negro physicians by southern medical societies is not just a national, but an international disgrace. The claim of the AMA that it is powerless to correct this practice because of the 'autonomy' of its component societies is an evasion of its responsibility. Surely, if the southern medical societies decided to admit chiropractors to membership the AMA would quickly find the means of re-defining this autonomy." See "New York County Medical Society Election Makes News," PFB, March 1951, pp. 17-18.
69. "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as a Reference Committee, February 9, 1948"; "Reject Bias Action in Medical Society," New York Times, 28 October 1948, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. For the articulation of the regulars' stance advocating local autonomy for county societies, see William B. Rawls, "The Discrimination Question," NYM, 4 (September 20, 1948): 24, 30. Forum member Martha Mendell challenged this position: "The continued exclusion of Negro physicians by southern medical societies is not just a national, but an international disgrace. The claim of the AMA that it is powerless to correct this practice because of the 'autonomy' of its component societies is an evasion of its responsibility. Surely, if the southern medical societies decided to admit chiropractors to membership the AMA would quickly find the means of re-defining this autonomy." See "New York County Medical Society Election Makes News," PFB, March 1951, pp. 17-18.
70. "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as a Reference Committee, February 9, 1948"; "Reject Bias Action in Medical Society," New York Times, 28 October 1948, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. For the articulation of the regulars' stance advocating local autonomy for county societies, see William B. Rawls, "The Discrimination Question," NYM, 4 (September 20, 1948): 24, 30. Forum member Martha Mendell challenged this position: "The continued exclusion of Negro physicians by southern medical societies is not just a national, but an international disgrace. The claim of the AMA that it is powerless to correct this practice because of the 'autonomy' of its component societies is an evasion of its responsibility. Surely, if the southern medical societies decided to admit chiropractors to membership the AMA would quickly find the means of re-defining this autonomy." See "New York County Medical Society Election Makes News," PFB, March 1951, pp. 17-18.
71. "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as a Reference Committee, February 9, 1948"; "Reject Bias Action in Medical Society," New York Times, 28 October 1948, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. For the articulation of the regulars' stance advocating local autonomy for county societies, see William B. Rawls, "The Discrimination Question," NYM, 4 (September 20, 1948): 24, 30. Forum member Martha Mendell challenged this position: "The continued exclusion of Negro physicians by southern medical societies is not just a national, but an international disgrace. The claim of the AMA that it is powerless to correct this practice because of the 'autonomy' of its component societies is an evasion of its responsibility. Surely, if the southern medical societies decided to admit chiropractors to membership the AMA would quickly find the means of re-defining this autonomy." See "New York County Medical Society Election Makes News," PFB, March 1951, pp. 17-18.
72. Lawrence J. Roose, "The Forum in New York," PFB, September 1951, pp. 7-8; "Hospital Appointments for Negro Physicians," NYM 5 (November 5, 1949): 13; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora, April 14, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Continuing Committee on Discrimination," NYM, 9 (May 5, 1953): 224.
73. Lawrence J. Roose, "The Forum in New York," PFB, September 1951, pp. 7-8; "Hospital Appointments for Negro Physicians," NYM 5 (November 5, 1949): 13; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora, April 14, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Continuing Committee on Discrimination," NYM, 9 (May 5, 1953): 224.
74. Lawrence J. Roose, "The Forum in New York," PFB, September 1951, pp. 7-8; "Hospital Appointments for Negro Physicians," NYM 5 (November 5, 1949): 13; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora, April 14, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Continuing Committee on Discrimination," NYM, 9 (May 5, 1953): 224.
75. Lawrence J. Roose, "The Forum in New York," PFB, September 1951, pp. 7-8; "Hospital Appointments for Negro Physicians," NYM 5 (November 5, 1949): 13; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora, April 14, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Continuing Committee on Discrimination," NYM, 9 (May 5, 1953): 224.
76. Lawrence J. Roose, "The Forum in New York," PFB, September 1951, pp. 7-8; "Hospital Appointments for Negro Physicians," NYM 5 (November 5, 1949): 13; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora, April 14, 1952," Archives MSCNY; "Report of the Continuing Committee on Discrimination," NYM, 9 (May 5, 1953): 224.
77. George D. Cannon, "Why I am a Member of the PF," PFB, September 1951, pp. 9-10; Lawrence J. Roose to Gervais W. McAuliffe, April 9, 1952; "Report of the Nominations Committee, April 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, April 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY. Murray, who was born in Houma, La., the grandson of a slave and son of a washerwoman, was 65 years old in 1954 when he became the president of the County Society, the first black president in any AMA constituent. A 1914 graduate of Howard University College of Medicine and past president of the National Medical Association, he spoke out against medical Jim Crowism. But, as a friend said, Murray was no "desk pounder." An opponent of national health insurance, Murray was a strong ally of Society regulars. Every year between 1949 and 1953, he was the lone black delegate representing New York in the AMA House of Delegates. See Medical Economics, May 1954, in Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY.
78. George D. Cannon, "Why I am a Member of the PF," PFB, September 1951, pp. 9-10; Lawrence J. Roose to Gervais W. McAuliffe, April 9, 1952; "Report of the Nominations Committee, April 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, April 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY. Murray, who was born in Houma, La., the grandson of a slave and son of a washerwoman, was 65 years old in 1954 when he became the president of the County Society, the first black president in any AMA constituent. A 1914 graduate of Howard University College of Medicine and past president of the National Medical Association, he spoke out against medical Jim Crowism. But, as a friend said, Murray was no "desk pounder." An opponent of national health insurance, Murray was a strong ally of Society regulars. Every year between 1949 and 1953, he was the lone black delegate representing New York in the AMA House of Delegates. See Medical Economics, May 1954, in Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY.
79. George D. Cannon, "Why I am a Member of the PF," PFB, September 1951, pp. 9-10; Lawrence J. Roose to Gervais W. McAuliffe, April 9, 1952; "Report of the Nominations Committee, April 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, April 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY. Murray, who was born in Houma, La., the grandson of a slave and son of a washerwoman, was 65 years old in 1954 when he became the president of the County Society, the first black president in any AMA constituent. A 1914 graduate of Howard University College of Medicine and past president of the National Medical Association, he spoke out against medical Jim Crowism. But, as a friend said, Murray was no "desk pounder." An opponent of national health insurance, Murray was a strong ally of Society regulars. Every year between 1949 and 1953, he was the lone black delegate representing New York in the AMA House of Delegates. See Medical Economics, May 1954, in Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY.
80. George D. Cannon, "Why I am a Member of the PF," PFB, September 1951, pp. 9-10; Lawrence J. Roose to Gervais W. McAuliffe, April 9, 1952; "Report of the Nominations Committee, April 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, April 28, 1952," Archives MSCNY. Murray, who was born in Houma, La., the grandson of a slave and son of a washerwoman, was 65 years old in 1954 when he became the president of the County Society, the first black president in any AMA constituent. A 1914 graduate of Howard University College of Medicine and past president of the National Medical Association, he spoke out against medical Jim Crowism. But, as a friend said, Murray was no "desk pounder." An opponent of national health insurance, Murray was a strong ally of Society regulars. Every year between 1949 and 1953, he was the lone black delegate representing New York in the AMA House of Delegates. See Medical Economics, May 1954, in Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY.
81. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952"; "Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, March 10, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting, March 24, 1952"; "German Doctor Here Dropped by Air Force," New York Times, 26 February 1952, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. Ernest Chain (1906-1979) was a German-born biochemist who fled to England in 1933 when Hitler came to power. He collaborated with Howard Florey; their work resulted in the isolation and purification of penicillin and demonstration of its effectiveness. In 1945, the two, with Alexander Fleming, shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. In 1969, Queen Elizabeth of England knighted Chain. In 1951, the US State Department refused him a visa. Although the State Department gave no explanation, the New York Times speculated that it was because Chain, who was rehabilitating penicillin plants in Czechoslovakia, did not leave after the Communist coup in 1948. See "Ernest Chain, Shared Nobel Prize for Role Developing Penicillin, New York Times, 15 August 1979. See also Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy. The Hunt for Nazi Scientists (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1987), pp. 255-58. Schreiber escaped trial at Nuremberg because he was a Russian prisoner of war. He managed to flee, and arrived in Texas in September 1951. According to Bower, Schreiber headed the Department for Science and Health in the German High Command, where under his direction doctors performed experiments on concentration camp inmates. During the trials, many German physicians testified that Schreiber had witnessed their work. Following the uproar in the US, Schreiber was permitted to go to Argentina.
82. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952"; "Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, March 10, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting, March 24, 1952"; "German Doctor Here Dropped by Air Force," New York Times, 26 February 1952, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. Ernest Chain (1906-1979) was a German-born biochemist who fled to England in 1933 when Hitler came to power. He collaborated with Howard Florey; their work resulted in the isolation and purification of penicillin and demonstration of its effectiveness. In 1945, the two, with Alexander Fleming, shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. In 1969, Queen Elizabeth of England knighted Chain. In 1951, the US State Department refused him a visa. Although the State Department gave no explanation, the New York Times speculated that it was because Chain, who was rehabilitating penicillin plants in Czechoslovakia, did not leave after the Communist coup in 1948. See "Ernest Chain, Shared Nobel Prize for Role Developing Penicillin, New York Times, 15 August 1979. See also Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy. The Hunt for Nazi Scientists (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1987), pp. 255-58. Schreiber escaped trial at Nuremberg because he was a Russian prisoner of war. He managed to flee, and arrived in Texas in September 1951. According to Bower, Schreiber headed the Department for Science and Health in the German High Command, where under his direction doctors performed experiments on concentration camp inmates. During the trials, many German physicians testified that Schreiber had witnessed their work. Following the uproar in the US, Schreiber was permitted to go to Argentina.
83. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952"; "Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, March 10, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting, March 24, 1952"; "German Doctor Here Dropped by Air Force," New York Times, 26 February 1952, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. Ernest Chain (1906-1979) was a German-born biochemist who fled to England in 1933 when Hitler came to power. He collaborated with Howard Florey; their work resulted in the isolation and purification of penicillin and demonstration of its effectiveness. In 1945, the two, with Alexander Fleming, shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. In 1969, Queen Elizabeth of England knighted Chain. In 1951, the US State Department refused him a visa. Although the State Department gave no explanation, the New York Times speculated that it was because Chain, who was rehabilitating penicillin plants in Czechoslovakia, did not leave after the Communist coup in 1948. See "Ernest Chain, Shared Nobel Prize for Role Developing Penicillin, New York Times, 15 August 1979. See also Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy. The Hunt for Nazi Scientists (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1987), pp. 255-58. Schreiber escaped trial at Nuremberg because he was a Russian prisoner of war. He managed to flee, and arrived in Texas in September 1951. According to Bower, Schreiber headed the Department for Science and Health in the German High Command, where under his direction doctors performed experiments on concentration camp inmates. During the trials, many German physicians testified that Schreiber had witnessed their work. Following the uproar in the US, Schreiber was permitted to go to Argentina.
84. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952"; "Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, March 10, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting, March 24, 1952"; "German Doctor Here Dropped by Air Force," New York Times, 26 February 1952, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. Ernest Chain (1906-1979) was a German-born biochemist who fled to England in 1933 when Hitler came to power. He collaborated with Howard Florey; their work resulted in the isolation and purification of penicillin and demonstration of its effectiveness. In 1945, the two, with Alexander Fleming, shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. In 1969, Queen Elizabeth of England knighted Chain. In 1951, the US State Department refused him a visa. Although the State Department gave no explanation, the New York Times speculated that it was because Chain, who was rehabilitating penicillin plants in Czechoslovakia, did not leave after the Communist coup in 1948. See "Ernest Chain, Shared Nobel Prize for Role Developing Penicillin, New York Times, 15 August 1979. See also Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy. The Hunt for Nazi Scientists (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1987), pp. 255-58. Schreiber escaped trial at Nuremberg because he was a Russian prisoner of war. He managed to flee, and arrived in Texas in September 1951. According to Bower, Schreiber headed the Department for Science and Health in the German High Command, where under his direction doctors performed experiments on concentration camp inmates. During the trials, many German physicians testified that Schreiber had witnessed their work. Following the uproar in the US, Schreiber was permitted to go to Argentina.
85. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952"; "Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, March 10, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting, March 24, 1952"; "German Doctor Here Dropped by Air Force," New York Times, 26 February 1952, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. Ernest Chain (1906-1979) was a German-born biochemist who fled to England in 1933 when Hitler came to power. He collaborated with Howard Florey; their work resulted in the isolation and purification of penicillin and demonstration of its effectiveness. In 1945, the two, with Alexander Fleming, shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. In 1969, Queen Elizabeth of England knighted Chain. In 1951, the US State Department refused him a visa. Although the State Department gave no explanation, the New York Times speculated that it was because Chain, who was rehabilitating penicillin plants in Czechoslovakia, did not leave after the Communist coup in 1948. See "Ernest Chain, Shared Nobel Prize for Role Developing Penicillin, New York Times, 15 August 1979. See also Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy. The Hunt for Nazi Scientists (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1987), pp. 255-58. Schreiber escaped trial at Nuremberg because he was a Russian prisoner of war. He managed to flee, and arrived in Texas in September 1951. According to Bower, Schreiber headed the Department for Science and Health in the German High Command, where under his direction doctors performed experiments on concentration camp inmates. During the trials, many German physicians testified that Schreiber had witnessed their work. Following the uproar in the US, Schreiber was permitted to go to Argentina.
86. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 28, 1952"; "Report of the Comitia Minora of the MSCNY, March 10, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting, March 24, 1952"; "German Doctor Here Dropped by Air Force," New York Times, 26 February 1952, Scrapbook MSCNY, Archives MSCNY. Ernest Chain (1906-1979) was a German-born biochemist who fled to England in 1933 when Hitler came to power. He collaborated with Howard Florey; their work resulted in the isolation and purification of penicillin and demonstration of its effectiveness. In 1945, the two, with Alexander Fleming, shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. In 1969, Queen Elizabeth of England knighted Chain. In 1951, the US State Department refused him a visa. Although the State Department gave no explanation, the New York Times speculated that it was because Chain, who was rehabilitating penicillin plants in Czechoslovakia, did not leave after the Communist coup in 1948. See "Ernest Chain, Shared Nobel Prize for Role Developing Penicillin, New York Times, 15 August 1979. See also Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy. The Hunt for Nazi Scientists (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1987), pp. 255-58. Schreiber escaped trial at Nuremberg because he was a Russian prisoner of war. He managed to flee, and arrived in Texas in September 1951. According to Bower, Schreiber headed the Department for Science and Health in the German High Command, where under his direction doctors performed experiments on concentration camp inmates. During the trials, many German physicians testified that Schreiber had witnessed their work. Following the uproar in the US, Schreiber was permitted to go to Argentina.
87. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
88. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
89. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the
90. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
91. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
92. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
93. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
94. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
95. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
96. Boas and Aaron contended that the private purchase of comparable retirement and survivors' benefit programs cost doctors two to forty times more than Social Security. "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, January 38, 1952," Archive MSCNY; "Report of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, February 11, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, February 25, 1952"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, March 24, 1952," Archives MSCNY. "County Medical Society Favors Social Security," New York Times, 25 March 1952.; "Minutes of the Comitia Minora Sitting as Reference Committee, April 12, 1954"; "Minutes of the Stated Meeting of the MSCNY, October 26, 1963," Archives MSCNY. "The Changing Climate on Social Security for Doctors," NYM, 12 (June 5, 1957): 467; "Policy Decisions by AMA," NYM, 12 (July 20, 1957): 594. According to Walter Lear, "in terms of dollars raised and spent and of physicians reached and involved this was the Forum's largest project. In terms of common criteria, this was the Forum's greatest success." See "Reclaiming Our Heritage: 34 Years Ago," PFB, Spring 1986, p. 10.
97. "Expanded Role for the AMA," NYM, 6 (January 20, 1950): 15; John Garlock, "Inaugural Address," NYM, 9 (November 5, 1953): 812-13.
98. "Expanded Role for the AMA," NYM, 6 (January 20, 1950): 15; John Garlock, "Inaugural Address," NYM, 9 (November 5, 1953): 812-13.
99. "What Doctors Think of Doctors," NYM, 12 (November 20, 1956): 991; Allan M. Butler, "The Medical Profession's Reaction to Compulsory Health Insurance," reprinted from Social Security in America, Addresses before the National Conference on Social Security, Washington, D.C., January 1944, p. 5, Butler Papers. Samuel Z. Freedman, "Retiring Address," NYM, 13 (June 20, 1957): 505-07.
100. "What Doctors Think of Doctors," NYM, 12 (November 20, 1956): 991; Allan M. Butler, "The Medical Profession's Reaction to Compulsory Health Insurance," reprinted from Social Security in America, Addresses before the National Conference on Social Security, Washington, D.C., January 1944, p. 5, Butler Papers. Samuel Z. Freedman, "Retiring Address," NYM, 13 (June 20, 1957): 505-07.
101. "What Doctors Think of Doctors," NYM, 12 (November 20, 1956): 991; Allan M. Butler, "The Medical Profession's Reaction to Compulsory Health Insurance," reprinted from Social Security in America, Addresses before the National Conference on Social Security, Washington, D.C., January 1944, p. 5, Butler Papers. Samuel Z. Freedman, "Retiring Address," NYM, 13 (June 20, 1957): 505-07.
102. Gerald D. Dorman, "Inaugural Address," NYM, 11 (November 20, 1955): 327-28; Reed B. Dawson, "Proposals to Change the Constitution," NYM, 13 (March 5, 1957): 205, 207-09; also Reed B. Dawson, "Revision of the Constitution and By-Laws-II," NYM, 13 (March 20, 1957): 246-47.
103. Gerald D. Dorman, "Inaugural Address," NYM, 11 (November 20, 1955): 327-28; Reed B. Dawson, "Proposals to Change the Constitution," NYM, 13 (March 5, 1957): 205, 207-09; also Reed B. Dawson, "Revision of the Constitution and By-Laws-II," NYM, 13 (March 20, 1957): 246-47.
104. Gerald D. Dorman, "Inaugural Address," NYM, 11 (November 20, 1955): 327-28; Reed B. Dawson, "Proposals to Change the Constitution," NYM, 13 (March 5, 1957): 205, 207-09; also Reed B. Dawson, "Revision of the Constitution and By-Laws-II," NYM, 13 (March 20, 1957): 246-47.
105. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
106. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
107. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
108. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
109. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
110. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
111. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
112. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
113. See, for example, Aaron Hardy Ulm, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 5, 1957): 287; Martha Mendell, to the editor, NYM, 13 (April 20, 1957): 321, 348; Peter M. Murray, "Comments on the Letters of the Editor," NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 373-74; Alan Emanuel, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371-72; Natalie Yarow, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 377-80; Robert V. Sager, to the editor, NYM, 13 (May 5, 1957): 371; see also Lawrence Roose, to the editor, NYM 13 (May 5, 1957): 372, 377. "Minutes of the 152nd Annual Meeting of the MSCNY, May 27, 1957," Archives MSCNY; Hyman M. Gold, to the editor, NYM 14 (March 20, 1958): 198.
114. "The Tragedy of Non-Attendance or how to Cripple a Medical Society," NYM, 20 (July 5, 1964): 383; Edward A. Burkhardt, "Changes to be Proposed in Society's Constitution," NYM, 21 (November 20, 1965): 343-44; Edward A. Burkhardt, "Revision of Constitution-II," NYM, 21 (December 5, 1965): 671.
115. "The Tragedy of Non-Attendance or how to Cripple a Medical Society," NYM, 20 (July 5, 1964): 383; Edward A. Burkhardt, "Changes to be Proposed in Society's Constitution," NYM, 21 (November 20, 1965): 343-44; Edward A. Burkhardt, "Revision of Constitution-II," NYM, 21 (December 5, 1965): 671.
116. "The Tragedy of Non-Attendance or how to Cripple a Medical Society," NYM, 20 (July 5, 1964): 383; Edward A. Burkhardt, "Changes to be Proposed in Society's Constitution," NYM, 21 (November 20, 1965): 343-44; Edward A. Burkhardt, "Revision of Constitution-II," NYM, 21 (December 5, 1965): 671.
117. Among its many findings, the report discovered that Blue Shield was paying for poor quality medical care in NYC. The report highlighted surgery performed by nonspecialists in unaccredited hospitals as well as unnecessary surgery. A series of eight articles in New York Medicine lambasted the report. Dr. Trussell defended the inquiry and attacked the County's challenge unmercifully when he spoke at a County Society meeting on April 22, 1963. See "Address presented by Dr. Ray E. Trussell, Commissioner of Hospitals of New York City, before MSCNY at its Scientific Meeting on April 22, 1963 at the Hotel Barbizon-Plaza," Archives of the MSCNY; also "Trussell Again Assails County Docs' Society," Daily News, 23 April 1963; "Doctors vs. Doctors," New York Herald Tribune, 11 November 1962.; "Trussell Report is Assailed Again," New York Times, 6 October 1962.; "The Trussell-Himler Debate on the Problems of Health Care in New York City, Presented at the Scientific Meeting of the MSCNY, Hotel Barbizon-Plaza, April 22, 1963," NYM, 19 (June 5, 1963): 364-88. The New York Post characterized the County Society move to audit medical care as a "belated . . . constructive response." "Medical Care in NY," New York Post, 29 May 1963; also "Doctors to Study Quality of Care," New York Times, 28 May 1963. See MSCNY Scrapbook, Archives NSCNY.
118. Among its many findings, the report discovered that Blue Shield was paying for poor quality medical care in NYC. The report highlighted surgery performed by nonspecialists in unaccredited hospitals as well as unnecessary surgery. A series of eight articles in New York Medicine lambasted the report. Dr. Trussell defended the inquiry and attacked the County's challenge unmercifully when he spoke at a County Society meeting on April 22, 1963. See "Address presented by Dr. Ray E. Trussell, Commissioner of Hospitals of New York City, before MSCNY at its Scientific Meeting on April 22, 1963 at the Hotel Barbizon-Plaza," Archives of the MSCNY; also "Trussell Again Assails County Docs' Society," Daily News, 23 April 1963; "Doctors vs. Doctors," New York Herald Tribune, 11 November 1962.; "Trussell Report is Assailed Again," New York Times, 6 October 1962.; "The Trussell-Himler Debate on the Problems of Health Care in New York City, Presented at the Scientific Meeting of the MSCNY, Hotel Barbizon-Plaza, April 22, 1963," NYM, 19 (June 5, 1963): 364-88. The New York Post characterized the County Society move to audit medical care as a "belated . . . constructive response." "Medical Care in NY," New York Post, 29 May 1963; also "Doctors to Study Quality of Care," New York Times, 28 May 1963. See MSCNY Scrapbook, Archives NSCNY.
119. Among its many findings, the report discovered that Blue Shield was paying for poor quality medical care in NYC. The report highlighted surgery performed by nonspecialists in unaccredited hospitals as well as unnecessary surgery. A series of eight articles in New York Medicine lambasted the report. Dr. Trussell defended the inquiry and attacked the County's challenge unmercifully when he spoke at a County Society meeting on April 22, 1963. See "Address presented by Dr. Ray E. Trussell, Commissioner of Hospitals of New York City, before MSCNY at its Scientific Meeting on April 22, 1963 at the Hotel Barbizon-Plaza," Archives of the MSCNY; also "Trussell Again Assails County Docs' Society," Daily News, 23 April 1963; "Doctors vs. Doctors," New York Herald Tribune, 11 November 1962.; "Trussell Report is Assailed Again," New York Times, 6 October 1962.; "The Trussell-Himler Debate on the Problems of Health Care in New York City, Presented at the Scientific Meeting of the MSCNY, Hotel Barbizon-Plaza, April 22, 1963," NYM, 19 (June 5, 1963): 364-88. The New York Post characterized the County Society move to audit medical care as a "belated . . . constructive response." "Medical Care in NY," New York Post, 29 May 1963; also "Doctors to Study Quality of Care," New York Times, 28 May 1963. See MSCNY Scrapbook, Archives NSCNY.
120. Among its many findings, the report discovered that Blue Shield was paying for poor quality medical care in NYC. The report highlighted surgery performed by nonspecialists in unaccredited hospitals as well as unnecessary surgery. A series of eight articles in New York Medicine lambasted the report. Dr. Trussell defended the inquiry and attacked the County's challenge unmercifully when he spoke at a County Society meeting on April 22, 1963. See "Address presented by Dr. Ray E. Trussell, Commissioner of Hospitals of New York City, before MSCNY at its Scientific Meeting on April 22, 1963 at the Hotel Barbizon-Plaza," Archives of the MSCNY; also "Trussell Again Assails County Docs' Society," Daily News, 23 April 1963; "Doctors vs. Doctors," New York Herald Tribune, 11 November 1962.; "Trussell Report is Assailed Again," New York Times, 6 October 1962.; "The Trussell-Himler Debate on the Problems of Health Care in New York City, Presented at the Scientific Meeting of the MSCNY, Hotel Barbizon-Plaza, April 22, 1963," NYM, 19 (June 5, 1963): 364-88. The New York Post characterized the County Society move to audit medical care as a "belated . . . constructive response." "Medical Care in NY," New York Post, 29 May 1963; also "Doctors to Study Quality of Care," New York Times, 28 May 1963. See MSCNY Scrapbook, Archives NSCNY.
121. Among its many findings, the report discovered that Blue Shield was paying for poor quality medical care in NYC. The report highlighted surgery performed by nonspecialists in unaccredited hospitals as well as unnecessary surgery. A series of eight articles in New York Medicine lambasted the report. Dr. Trussell defended the inquiry and attacked the County's challenge unmercifully when he spoke at a County Society meeting on April 22, 1963. See "Address presented by Dr. Ray E. Trussell, Commissioner of Hospitals of New York City, before MSCNY at its Scientific Meeting on April 22, 1963 at the Hotel Barbizon-Plaza," Archives of the MSCNY; also "Trussell Again Assails County Docs' Society," Daily News, 23 April 1963; "Doctors vs. Doctors," New York Herald Tribune, 11 November 1962.; "Trussell Report is Assailed Again," New York Times, 6 October 1962.; "The Trussell-Himler Debate on the Problems of Health Care in New York City, Presented at the Scientific Meeting of the MSCNY, Hotel Barbizon-Plaza, April 22, 1963," NYM, 19 (June 5, 1963): 364-88. The New York Post characterized the County Society move to audit medical care as a "belated . . . constructive response." "Medical Care in NY," New York Post, 29 May 1963; also "Doctors to Study Quality of Care," New York Times, 28 May 1963. See MSCNY Scrapbook, Archives NSCNY.
122. Among its many findings, the report discovered that Blue Shield was paying for poor quality medical care in NYC. The report highlighted surgery performed by nonspecialists in unaccredited hospitals as well as unnecessary surgery. A series of eight articles in New York Medicine lambasted the report. Dr. Trussell defended the inquiry and attacked the County's challenge unmercifully when he spoke at a County Society meeting on April 22, 1963. See "Address presented by Dr. Ray E. Trussell, Commissioner of Hospitals of New York City, before MSCNY at its Scientific Meeting on April 22, 1963 at the Hotel Barbizon-Plaza," Archives of the MSCNY; also "Trussell Again Assails County Docs' Society," Daily News, 23 April 1963; "Doctors vs. Doctors," New York Herald Tribune, 11 November 1962.; "Trussell Report is Assailed Again," New York Times, 6 October 1962.; "The Trussell-Himler Debate on the Problems of Health Care in New York City, Presented at the Scientific Meeting of the MSCNY, Hotel Barbizon-Plaza, April 22, 1963," NYM, 19 (June 5, 1963): 364-88. The New York Post characterized the County Society move to audit medical care as a "belated . . . constructive response." "Medical Care in NY," New York Post, 29 May 1963; also "Doctors to Study Quality of Care," New York Times, 28 May 1963. See MSCNY Scrapbook, Archives NSCNY.
123. Among its many findings, the report discovered that Blue Shield was paying for poor quality medical care in NYC. The report highlighted surgery performed by nonspecialists in unaccredited hospitals as well as unnecessary surgery. A series of eight articles in New York Medicine lambasted the report. Dr. Trussell defended the inquiry and attacked the County's challenge unmercifully when he spoke at a County Society meeting on April 22, 1963. See "Address presented by Dr. Ray E. Trussell, Commissioner of Hospitals of New York City, before MSCNY at its Scientific Meeting on April 22, 1963 at the Hotel Barbizon-Plaza," Archives of the MSCNY; also "Trussell Again Assails County Docs' Society," Daily News, 23 April 1963; "Doctors vs. Doctors," New York Herald Tribune, 11 November 1962.; "Trussell Report is Assailed Again," New York Times, 6 October 1962.; "The Trussell-Himler Debate on the Problems of Health Care in New York City, Presented at the Scientific Meeting of the MSCNY, Hotel Barbizon-Plaza, April 22, 1963," NYM, 19 (June 5, 1963): 364-88. The New York Post characterized the County Society move to audit medical care as a "belated . . . constructive response." "Medical Care in NY," New York Post, 29 May 1963; also "Doctors to Study Quality of Care," New York Times, 28 May 1963. See MSCNY Scrapbook, Archives NSCNY.
124. Allan M. Butler to Leo Mayer, 26 September 1962, Butler Papers. Hyman Gold, for example, resigned from the County Society because as a HIP doctor he did not have to rely on the preferential malpractice insurance rates available to County members. But he spoke of Alfred Moldovan, who stayed with the Society so as not to "let Society leaders revert to their old ways." Dr. Moldovan, who is still active in the Manhattan Society, believes now that the Forum made a tactical error in removing itself as a pressure group within the Society. Interview with Dr. Hyman Gold, 14 April 1993; interview with Dr. Alfred Moldovan, 29 April 1993. In 1958, the Forum issued the first statement by an organization warning of the hazards to health and human welfare of the nation's atomic arsenal. A Forum-initiated resolution led to the formation of a Committee on Radiation Hazards in the Manhattan County Society. Forum members Allan Butler and Alan Bleich were among the founders of SANE in 1959. Two Forum members, Victor Sidel and Bernard Lown, joined in establishing the Physicians for Social Responsibility in 1961. Leo Orris, Hyman Gold, and Robert B. Sager went to Mississippi in the summer of 1964 as part of the Medical Committee for Human Rights ("MCHR"), established that year to "supply emergency medical support to the civil rights movement meeting violent resistance in the South." See Milford O. Rouse, Quentin Young, Martin Gittelman, "We Challenge the AMA," published by the MCHR, 1967, Butler Papers; Leo Orris, Hyman M. Gold, Robert V. Sager, "Physicians in Mississippi," PFB, Spring/Summer 1965, pp. 13-18. Allan Butler counseled conscientious objectors and supported general resistance to the war in Vietnam. (Ellsworth Bunker, Ambassador to Vietnam, was Butler's brother-in-law; the two did not get along. I thank Patricia Lievow for this information.) He also testified on behalf of Benjamin Spock in his 1968 trial for conspiracy. See Benjamin Spock to Butler, 30 April 1968; draft of Butler statement in support of Spock; Allan M. Butler, "On Vietnam and the Younger Generation's Opportunity for Social Responsibility," Butler Papers.
125. Allan M. Butler to Leo Mayer, 26 September 1962, Butler Papers. Hyman Gold, for example, resigned from the County Society because as a HIP doctor he did not have to rely on the preferential malpractice insurance rates available to County members. But he spoke of Alfred Moldovan, who stayed with the Society so as not to "let Society leaders revert to their old ways." Dr. Moldovan, who is still active in the Manhattan Society, believes now that the Forum made a tactical error in removing itself as a pressure group within the Society. Interview with Dr. Hyman Gold, 14 April 1993; interview with Dr. Alfred Moldovan, 29 April 1993. In 1958, the Forum issued the first statement by an organization warning of the hazards to health and human welfare of the nation's atomic arsenal. A Forum-initiated resolution led to the formation of a Committee on Radiation Hazards in the Manhattan County Society. Forum members Allan Butler and Alan Bleich were among the founders of SANE in 1959. Two Forum members, Victor Sidel and Bernard Lown, joined in establishing the Physicians for Social Responsibility in 1961. Leo Orris, Hyman Gold, and Robert B. Sager went to Mississippi in the summer of 1964 as part of the Medical Committee for Human Rights ("MCHR"), established that year to "supply emergency medical support to the civil rights movement meeting violent resistance in the South." See Milford O. Rouse, Quentin Young, Martin Gittelman, "We Challenge the AMA," published by the MCHR, 1967, Butler Papers; Leo Orris, Hyman M. Gold, Robert V. Sager, "Physicians in Mississippi," PFB, Spring/Summer 1965, pp. 13-18. Allan Butler counseled conscientious objectors and supported general resistance to the war in Vietnam. (Ellsworth Bunker, Ambassador to Vietnam, was Butler's brother-in-law; the two did not get along. I thank Patricia Lievow for this information.) He also testified on behalf of Benjamin Spock in his 1968 trial for conspiracy. See Benjamin Spock to Butler, 30 April 1968; draft of Butler statement in support of Spock; Allan M. Butler, "On Vietnam and the Younger Generation's Opportunity for Social Responsibility," Butler Papers.
126. The broader agenda included freedom of expression in the medical press, civil liberties for physicians, an end to discrimination in medicine, physician welfare and working conditions, the public health hazards of radiation from nuclear testing, and protest against a bloated military budget that siphoned resources necessary to the social and economic underpinnings of health. Sidney M. Greenberg to Henry E. Sigerist, 20 July 1951, in the Papers of Henry E. Sigerist, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University; George A. Silver to Jane Pacht Brickman, 1 July 1989.