Pharmacokinetic factors in the modern drug treatment of tuberculosis

Clinical Pharmacokinetics

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 127-146

  Douglas, J Graham ^a   McLeod, Mary Joan ^a  

^a ABERDEEN ROYAL INFIRMARY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE DERIVATIVE; AMINOSALICYLIC ACID; AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; BETA LACTAM; CAPREOMYCIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLOFAZIMINE; CYCLOSERINE; CYCLOSPORIN; CYTOKINE; ETHAMBUTOL; ETHIONAMIDE; GAMMA INTERFERON; ISONIAZID; OFLOXACIN; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; PYRAZINAMIDE; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFABUTIN; RIFAMPICIN; RIFAPENTINE; STREPTOMYCIN; THIOACETAZONE; TUBERCULOSTATIC AGENT;

ALOPECIA; ARTHROPATHY; CHOLESTASIS; CONVULSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIARRHEA; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG MONITORING; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEPATITIS; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOTENSION; HYPOTHYROIDISM; KIDNEY DISEASE; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER TOXICITY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NEUROTOXICITY; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PHOTOSENSITIVITY DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN DISCOLORATION; TUBERCULOSIS; TUBERCULOUS MENINGITIS;

ANTITUBERCULAR AGENTS; CLINICAL TRIALS; COMORBIDITY; DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE; HUMANS; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 0032873360     PISSN: 03125963     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00003088-199937020-00003     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Dolin PJ, Raviglione MC, Kochi A. Global tuberculosis incidence and mortality during 1990-2000. Bull World Health Organ 1994; 72:213-20
2. World Health Organization, TB - a global emergency: WHO report on the TB epidemic. Geneva: WHO, 1994
3. Kunar D, Watson JM, Charlett A, et al. Tuberculosis in England and Wales in 1993: results of a national survey (Public Health Laboratory Service/British Thoracic Society/Department of Health Collaborativc Group). Thorax 1997; 52: 1060-7
4. Anon. National survey of tuberculosis in England and Wales - 1998. Communicable Diseases Weekly Report (England & Wales) 1998; 8 (24): 211-2
5. Bass Jr JB, Farer LS, Hopewell PC, et al. Treatment of tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in adults and children, American Thoracic Society and The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Am J Rexpir Crit Care Med 1904 May; 149 (5): 1359-74
6. Joint Tuberculosis Committee of the British Thoracic Society, Chemotherapy and management of tuberculosis in the United Kingdom: recommendations 1998. Thorax 1998; 53: 536-48
7. Holdiness MR. Clinical pharmacokineties of antituberculosis drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet 1984; 9: 511-44
8. Peloquin CA. Pharmacology of the antimycobacterial drugs. Med Clin North Am 1993; 77: 1253-62
9. Mandell GL, Petri WA. Drugs used in the chemotherapy of tuberculosis, Mycobacterium arium complex disease, and leprosy. In: Hardman JG, Limbierd LE, editors. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeuties. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996: 111-3
10. Aranda CP. Second-line agents: p-aminosalicylic acid, ethionamide, cycloserine and thiacetazone. In: Rom WN, Garay SM, editors. Tuberculosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997:811-6
11. Drlica K, Malik M, Wang JY, et al. The fluoroquinolones as antituberculosis agents. In: Rom WN, Garay SM, editors. Tuberculosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997: 817-27
12. O'Connor R, O'Sullivan JF, O'Kennedy R. The pharmacology, metabolism and chemistry of clofazimine. Drug Metab Rev 1995; 27: 591-614
13. Strausbaugh LJ, Madaleris CD, Sande MA. Comparison of four aminoglycoside antibiotics in the therapy of experimental E. coli meningitis. J Lab Clin Med 1977; 89: 602-701
14. Peets EA, Sweency Wm, Place VA. The absorption, excretion and metabolic fate of ethambutol in man. Am Rev Respir Dis 1965: 91: 51-8
15. Riley LW. Isoniazid chemistry, metabolism and mechanism of action. In: Rom WN, Garay SM, editors. Tuberculosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997: 763-71
16. Isoniazid. In: Reynolds JEF, editor Martindale London: Royal Pharmaceutical Society, 1996: 241-2
17. Weber WW, Hein DW. Clinical pharmacokinetics of isoniazid. Clin Pharmacokinet 1979; 4: 401-22
18. Peloquin CA, Jaresko GS, Yang C-L, et al. Population pharmacokinetic modeling of isoniazid, rifampicin and pyrazinamide. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 2670-9
19. Aranda CP. Pyrazinamide. In: Rom WN, Garay SM, editors. Tuberculosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997: 799-801
20. Blaschke TF, Skinner MH. The clinical pharmacokinetics of rifabutin. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 15-21
21. Law KF, Weiden M. Streptomycin, other aminoglycosides and caprcomycin. In: Rom WN, Garay SM, editors. Tuberculosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997:785-97
22. Miller AB, Fox W, Tall R. An international co-operative investigation into thioactazone side effects, Tubercle 1966; 47: 33
23. Harmann G, Honikel KO, Knussel F, et al. The specific inhibition of the DNA-directed RNA synthesis by rifamycin. Biochim Biophys Acta 1967: 145:843-4
24. Grosset J, Levenus S. Adverse effects or rifampin, Rev Infect Dis 1983; 5: 440-6
25. Ormerod LP, Skinner C, Wales J. Hepatotoxicity of antituberculosis drugs. Thorax 1996; 51: 111-3
26. Stork CM, Hoffman RS. Toxicology of antituberculosis drugs. In: Rom WN, Garay SM, editors. Tuberculosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven. 1997: 834
27. Robitzek EH, Selikoff JJ. Hydrazine derivatives of isonicotinic acid in the treatment of active progressive caseous-pneumonic tuberculosis: a preliminary report. Am Rev Tuberculosis 1952; 65: 402-28
28. Zhang Y, Young DB. Molecular mechanisms of isoniazid: a drug at the front line of tuberculosis control. Trends Microbial 1993; 1: 109-13
29. US Public Health Service Co-operative Clinical Investigation. Am Rev Tuberc 1956: 74: 196-9
30. Youatt J. A review of the action of isoniazid. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 99: 729-49
31. Donald PR, Gent WL, Scifart HI. Cercbrospinal fluid isoniazid concentrations in children with tuberculous meningitis: the influence of dosage and acctylation status. Pediatrics 1992; 89: 247-50
32. Parkin DP, Vardenplas S, Botha FJ, et al. Trimodality of isoniazid climination: phenotype and genotype in patients with tuberculosis Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155: 1717-22
33. Donald PR, Sirgel FA, Botha FJ, et al. The early bactericidal activity of isoniazid related to its dost size in pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1997; 156: 895-900
34. Ellard GA. The potential clinical significance of the isoniazid acetylator phenotype in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Tubercle 1984; 65: 211-7
35. Kopanoff D, Snider Jr DE, Caras GJ. Isoniazid-related hepatitis: a US Public Health Service cooperative surveillance study. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978; 117: 991-1001
36. Schaberg T. The dark side of anti-tuberculous therapy: adverse events involving liver function. Eur Respir J 1995; 8: 1247-9
37. Salpeter SR, Sanders GD, Salpeter EE, et al. Monitored isoniazid prophylaxis for low-risk tuberculin reactors older than 35 years of age: a risk-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis. Ann Intern Med 1997; 127: 1051-61
38. Gurumurthy P, Krishnamurthy MS, Nazareth O, et al. Lack of relationship between hepatic toxicity and acetylator phenotype in three thousand South Indian patients during treatment with isoniazid for tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 129: 58-61
39. Bistritzer T, Barzilay Z, Jonas A. Isoniazid-rifampin-induced fulminant liver disease in an infant. J Pediatr 1980; 97: 480-2
40. Cheung WC, Lo CY, Lo WK, et al. Isoniazid induced encephalopathy in dialysis patients. Tuber Lung Dis 1993: 74: 136-9
41. Shah BR, Santucci K, Sinert R, et al. Acute isoniazid neurotoxicity in an urban hospital. Pediatries 1995: 95: 700-4
42. Pallone KA, Goldman MP, Fuller MA. Isoniazid associated psychosis: case report and review of the literature. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27: 167-70
43. Crowle AJ, Sharbaro JA, May KH. Inhibition by pyrazinamide of tubercle bacilli within cultured human macrophages. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986; 134: 1052-5
44. Scott JT. Drug-induced gout. Ballieres Clin Rheumatol 1991; 5:39-60
45. Pyle MM, Pfuctze KH, Pearlman MD. A four-year clinical investigation of ethambutol in initial and re-treatment cases of tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1966; 93: 428-41
46. Takayama K, Armstrong EL, Kunugi KA, et al. Inhibition by ethambutol of mycolic acid transfer into the cell wall of Mycobacterium smegmatis. Antimicrob Agent Chemother 1979; 16:240-2
47. Trebucq A. Should ethambutol be recommended for routine treatment of tuberculosis in children? A review of the literature. Int J Tubere Lung Dis 1997: 1 (1): 12-5
48. Zhanel GG, Craig WA. Pharmacokinetic contributions to postantibiotic effects: focus on aminoglycosides. Clin Pharmacokinet 1994; 27: 377-92
49. Nunn P, Kibuga D, Gathua S, et al. Cutaneous hypersensitivity reactions due to thiacctazone in HIV-1 seropositive patients treated for tuberculosis. Lancet 1991; 337: 627-30
50. Lorian V. Antibiotics in laboratory medicine. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1986: 197-8
51. Hobby GL, Johnson PM, Boytar-Papirnyik V. Primary drug resistance: a continuing study of drug resistance in tuberculosis in a veteran population within the United States. X. September 1970 to September 1973. Am Rev Respir Dis 1974: 110: 95-8
52. Pfuctze K, De la Huerga J, Frakis A. Outpatient acceptance of PAS: transactions of the 20th Research Conference in Pulmonary Diseases. Washington, DC: Veterans Administration Department of Medicine and Surgery, 1961: 73-4
53. Youmans G. Tuberculosis. Philadelphia: WB Sounders, 1979: 148-9
54. US Public Health Service Cooperative Clinical Investigation. Am Rev Tuberc 1956; 74: 196-9
55. Uttley AH, Collins CH. In vitro activity of ciprofloxacin in combination with standard antituberculosis drugs against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tubercle 1988; 69: 193-5
56. Tomioka H, Saito H, Sato K. Comparative antimycobacterial activities of the newly synthesised quinolone AM-1155, sparfloxacin and ofloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 1259-63
57. Burkhardt JE, Walterspiel JIV, Schaad UB. Quinolone arthropathy in animals versus children, Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 1196-204
58. Christ W, Lehnert T. Toxicity of the quinolones. In: Siporin C, Heifetz C, Domagala J, editors. The new generation of quinolones. New York: Dekker. 1990: 165-87
59. Woodley CL, Kilburn JO. In vitro susceptibility of Mycobacterium avium complex and Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains to a spiropiperidyl rifamycin. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126: 586-7
60. Dhillon J, Mitchison DA. Activity in vitro of rifabutin, FCE 22807, rifapentinc and rifampin against Mycobacterium microti, and M. tuberculosis and their penetration into mouse peritoneal macrophages. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 212-4
61. Mor N, Simon B, Mezo N, et al. Comparison of activities of rifapentine and rifampin against Mycobacterium tuberculosis residing in human macrophages. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 2073-7
62. Casal M, Guitierroz J, Gonzalez J, et al. In vitro susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to a new macrolide antibiotic: RU-28965. Tubercle 1987: 68: 141-3
63. Rastogi N, Goh KS, Ruiz P, et al. in vitro activity of roxithromycin against Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Antimicrob Agnets Chemother 1995 May; 39 (5): 1162-5
64. Zhang Y, Steingrube VA, Wallace Jr RJ. Beta-lactamase inhibitors and the inducibility of the beta-lactamase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 657-60
65. Casal M, Rodriguez FC, Luna MD, et al. In vitro susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium africanum, Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobaacterium avium, Mycobacterium fortuitum, and Mycobacterium chelonae to ticarcillin in combination with clavulanic acid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987; 31: 132-3
66. Cynamon MH, Palmer GS. In vitro activity of amoxicillin in combination with clavulanic acid against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1983; 24: 429-31
67. Nadler JP, Berger J, Nord JA, et al. Amoxycillin-clavulanic acid for treating drug-resistant Mycobacrerium tuberculosis. Chest 1991; 99: 1025-6
68. Condos R, Rom WN, Schluger NW. Treatment of multidrug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis with interferon-gamma via aerosol. Lancet 1997; 349: 1513-5
69. Schentag JJ, De Angelis C, Swanson DJ. Dual individualisation with antibiotics. In: Evans WE, Schentag JJ, Jusko WJ, editors, Applied pharmacokinetics: principles of therapeutic drug monitoring. 2nd ed. Spokane (WA): Applied Therapeuties Inc., 1986: 463-92
70. Li RC, Zhu M, Schentag JJ. Achieving an optimal outcome in the treatment of infections: the role of clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antimicrobials. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999 Jul; 37 (1): 1-16
71. Peloquin CA, Berning SE. Infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Ann Pharmacother 1994; 28: 72-84
72. Kimberling ME, Phillips P, Patterson P, et al. Low serum anti-mycobacterial drug levels in non-HIV infected tuberculosis patients. Chest 1998; 113: 1178-83
73. Patel KB, Belmonte R, Crowe HM. Drug malabsorption and resistant tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients, N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 386-7
74. Peloquin CA. Using therapeutic drug monitoring to dose the antimycobacterial drugs. Clin Chest Med 1997; 18: 79-87
75. Peloquin CA, Nitta AT, Burman WJ, et al. Low antituberculous drug concentrations in patients with AIDS. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30: 919-25
76. Peloquin CA. Serum concentrations of the mycobacterial drugs. Chest 1998; 113: 1154-5
77. British Thoracic Association. A controlled trial of 6 months chemotherapy in pulmonary tuberculosis. Final report: results during 36 months after the end of chemotherapy and beyond, Br J Dis Chest 1984; 78: 330-6
78. Hong Kong Chest Service/British Medical Research Council. Five-year follow-up of a controlled trial of five 6-month regimens of chemotherapy for pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987: 130: 1339-42
79. Hong Kong Chest Service/British Medical Research Council. Controlled trial of 2, 4 and 6 month, three-times weekly regimens for smear-positive tuberculosis, including an assessment of a combined preparation of isoniazid, rifampicin and pyrazinamide. Results at 30 months. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143: 700-6
80. Combs DL, O'Brien RJ, Geiter LJ, USPHS tuberculosis short-course chemotherapy trial 21: effectiveness, toxicity, and acceptability. The report of final results. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112:397-406
81. Singapore Tuberculosis Service and British Medical Research Council. Clinical trial of three 6-month regimens of chemotherapy given intermittently in the continuation phase in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis, Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132: 374-8
82. Snider DE, Graczyk DE, Bek E, et al. Supervised six months treatment of newly diagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis using isoniazid, rifampin and pyrazinamide with or without streptomycin. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 130: 1091-4
83. Cohn DL, Catlin BJ, Peterson KL, et al, A 62-dose, 6-month therapy for pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis: a twice-weekly, directly observed and cost-effective regimen. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112: 407-15
84. Fox W. General considerations in intermittent drug therapy of pulmonary tuberculosis. Postgrad Med J 1971; 47: 729-36
85. Hong Kong Chest Service/Tuberculosis Research Centre Madras/British Medical Research Council. A controlled trial of 2-month, 3-month and 12-month regimens of chemotherapy for sputum-smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis: results at 60-months. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 130: 23-8
86. Hong Kong Chest Service/tuberculosis Research Centre Madras/British Medical Research Council. A controlled trial of 3-month, 4-month and 6-month regimens of: chemotherapy for sputum-smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis: results at 5 years, Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 139: 871-6
87. Hayward AC, Bennett DE, Herbert J, et al. Risk factors for drug resistance in patients with tuberculosis in England and Wales 1993-94. Thorax 1996; 51 Suppl. 3: S32
88. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Infectious Diseases. Chemotherapy for tuberculosis in infants and children. Pediatrics 1992; 89: 161-5
89. World Health Organisation Tuberculosis Unit. Division of Communicable Diseases. Guidelines for tuberculosis treatment in adults and children in national treatment programmes [WHO/TB/91]. Geneva: WHO, 1991: 1-61
90. International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. Antituberculosis regimens of chemotherapy. Recommendation from the committee on treatment of IUATLD. Bull Int Union Tubere Lung Dis 1988; 63: 60-4
91. Jacobs RF, Eisenach KD. Childhood tuberculosis. Adv Pediatr Infect Dis 1993; 8: 23-51
92. Inselman LS, Tuberculosis in children: an update. Pediatr Pulmonol 1996; 21: 101-20
93. Roy V, Tekur U, Chopra K. Pharmacokinetics of isoniazid in pulmonary tuberculosis: a comparative study of two dose levels. Ind Pediatr 1996; 33: 287-91
94. Mazouri SM. Short-course chemotherapy (6 months) for respiratory tuberculosis in children: results at 30 months. Bull Int Union Tuberc 1986; 61: 1607
95. Campbell IA, Ormerod LP, Friend JAR, et al. Six month versus nine month chemotherapy for tuberculosis of the lymph nodes: final results. Respir Med 1993; 87: 621-3
96. A controlled trial or 6-month and 9-month regimens of chemotherapy in patients undergoing radical surgery for tuberculosis or the spine in Hong Kong. Tenth report of the Medical Research Council Working Party on Tuberculosis of the Spine. Tubercle 1986; 67: 243-59
97. Controlled trial of short-course regimens of chemotherapy in the ambulatory treatment of spinal tuberculosis: results at three years of a study in Korea. Twelfth report of the Medical Research Council Working Party on Tuberculosis of the Spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1993 Mar; 75 (2): 240-8
98. Strang JI, Kakaza HH, Gibson DG, et al. Controlled trial of prednisolone as an adjuvant in treatment of tuberculous constrictive pericarditis in the Transkei. Lancet 1987; II: 1418-22
99. Strang JI, Kakuza HH, Gibson DG, et al. Controlled trial of complete open surgical drainage and of prednisolone in treatment of tuberculous pericardial effusion in the Transkei. Lancet 1988; II: 759-64
100. Jacobs RF, Sunakorn P, Chotpitayasunonah T, et al. Intensive short course chemotherapy for tuberculous meningitis. Paediatr Infect Dis J 1992; 11: 194-8
101. Humphries M. The management of tuberculous meningitis. Thorax 1992; 47: 577-81
102. Schoeman JF, van Zyl LE, Laubsher JA, Effect or corticosteroids on intracranial pressure, computed tomographic findings, and clinical outcome in young children with tuberculous meningitis. Pediatrics 1997; 99 (2): 226-31
103. Cuneo WD, Snider Jr DE. Enhancing patient compliance with tuberculosis therapy. Clin Chest Med 1989; 10: 375-80
104. Floyd K, Williamson D, Gilks C. Comparison of cost effectiveness of directly observed treatment (DOT) and conventionally delivered treatment for tuberculosis: experience from rural South Africa. BMJ 1997; 315; 1407-11
105. Garner P. What makes DOTS work? Directly observed Therapy. Lancet 1998; 352: 1326-7
106. Prony KP, Porter JDH. Public health and human rights: the ethics of international public health interventions in tuberculosis. In: Grange JH, Porter JDH, editors. Tuberculosis: an interdisciplinary perspective. London: Imperial College Press, 1999: 98-125
107. Kochi A. Tuberculosis control: is DOTS the health break-through of the 1990's? World Health Forum 1997; 18; 225-47
108. Moore RD, Chaulk CP, Griffiths R, et al. Cost-effectiveness of directly observed versus self-administered therapy for tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154: 1013-9
109. The current global situation of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Wkly Epidemiol Rev 1994; 69: 191-2
110. Sudre P, ten Dam G, Kochi A. Tuberculosis: a global overview of the situation today. Bull World Health Organ 1902; 70: 149-59
111. Raviglione MC, Narain JP, Kochi A. HIV-associated tuberculosis in developing countries. Clinical features, diagnosis and treatment. Bull World Health Organ 1992; 70: 515-26
112. Garay SM. Tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus infection. In: Rom WN, Garay SM. editors. Tuberculosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997: 443-6
113. Noronha D, Pallangyo KJ, Ndosi BN, et al. Radiological features of pulmonary tuberculosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. East Afr Med J 1991; 68: 210-5
114. Grosset JH. Treatment of tuberculosis in HIV infection, Tuber Lung Dis 1992; 73: 378-83
115. Ackah AH, Coulibaly D, Digbeu H, et al. Response to treatment, mortality, and CD4 lymphocyte counts in HIV-infected persons with tuberculosis in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire. Lancet 1995; 345: 607-10
116. Heylen R, Miller R. Adverse effects and drug interactions of medications commonly used in the treatment of adult HIV positive patients. Genitourin Med 1996; 72: 237-46
117. Small PM, Schecter GF, Goodman PC, et al. Treatment of tuberculosis in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 289-94
118. Lazar JD, Wilner KD. Drug interactions with fluconazole. Rev Infect Dis 1990; 12 Suppl. 3: S 327-333
119. Englehard D, Stutman HR, Marks MI. Interaction of ketoconazole with rifampicin and isoniazid. N Engl Med J 1984; 311: 1681-3
120. Heylen R, Miller R. Adverse effects and drug interactions of medications commonly used in the treatment of adult HIV positive patients: part II. Genitourin Med 1997; 73: 5-11
121. Clinical update: impact of HIV protease inhibitors on the treatment of HIV-infected tuberculosis patients with rifampicin. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1996; 45: 921-5
122. Perriens JH, St Louis, ME, Mukadi YB, et al. Pulmonary tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients in Zairc: a controlled trial of treatment for either 6 or 12 months. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 779-84
123. Guidelines on the management of tuberculosis, and HIV infection in the United Kingdom: the Subcommittee of the Joint Tuberculosis Committee of the British Thoracic Society. BMJ 1992; 304: 1231-3
124. Small PM, Schecter GF, Goodman PC. Treatment of tuberculosis in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1990; 324: 289-94
125. Coker R, Miller R. HIV associated tuberculosis [editorial]. BMJ 1997; 314: 1847
126. Tuberculosis in patients having dialysis [editorial]. BMJ 1980; 280:349
127. Hendy M, Stableforth D. The effect of established diabetes mellitus on the presentation of infiltrative pulmonary tuberculosis in the immigrant Asian community of an inner city area of the United Kingdom. Br J Dis Chest 1983; 77: 87-90
128. British Thoracic Association. A controlled trial of 6 months chemotherapy in pulmonary tuberculosis. First report: results during chemotherapy. Br J Dis Chest 1981; 75: 141-53
129. Hamadeh MA, Glassroth J. Tuberculosis and pregnancy. Chest 1992; 101: 1114-20
130. Hong Kong Chest Service/Tuberculosis Research Centre Madras/British Medical Research Council. A controlled clinical comparison of 6 and 8 months of antituberculosis chemotherapy in the treatment of patients with silicotuberculosis in Hong Kong. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143: 262-7
131. Ormerod LP. Drug resistant tuberculosis: problems in the horizon [editorial]. Thorax 1993; 48: 957-8
132. World Health Organization. Anti-tuberculosis drug resistance in the world. The WHO/JUATLD global project on anti-tuberculosis drug resistance surveillance. Geneva: WHO, 1997
133. David HL. Probability distribution of drug-resistant mutants in unselected population of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Appl Microbiol 1970; 20: 810-4
134. Rastogi N, Falkinham III JO. Solving the dilemma of antimycobacterial chemotherapy. Res Microbiol 1996; 147: 7-10
135. Sharbaro JA. 'Multidrug'-resistant tuberculosis: it is time to focus on the private sector of medicine. Chest 1997; 111: 1149-51
136. Mitchison DA. How drug resistance emerges as a result of poor compliance during short course chemotherapy for tuberculosis. Inf J Tubercle Lung Dis 1998; 2: 10-5
137. Drobniewski FA, Kent RJ, Stoker NG, et al. Molecular biology in the diagnosis and epidemiology of tuberculosis. J Hosp Infect 1994; 28: 249-63
138. Drobniewski FA, Pozniak AK. Molecular diagnosis, detection of drug resistance and epidemiology of tuberculosis. Br J Hosp Med 1996; 56: 204-8
139. Goyal M, Shaw RJ, Banerjee DK, et al. Rapid detection of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis. Eur Respir J 1997; 10: 1120-4
140. Goble M, Iseman M, Madsen LA, et al. Treatment of 171 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 527-32
141. Iseman M. Treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. N Engl J Mod 1993; 329: 784-91
142. Young DB. Blueprint of the white plague. Native 1998; 393: 537-44