Turning the corner in Singapore's developmental state?

Asian Survey

Volumn 39, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 214-242

  Huff, W G ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY; POLITICAL ECONOMY; STATE ROLE;

SINGAPORE;

EID: 0032864913     PISSN: 00044687     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2645453     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
2. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
3. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
4. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
5. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
6. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
7. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
8. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
9. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
10. Work on the developmental state includes Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the Third World State," Sociological Forum 4:4 (1989), pp. 561-87, and Embedded Autonomy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Economic Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Robert Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Woo Jung-En, Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Dani Rodrik, "Political Economy and Development Policy," European Economic Review 36 (1992), pp. 329-36, and "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy 20 (1995), pp. 55-107; Richard Grabowski, "The Successful Developmental State: Where Does It Come From?" World Development 22:3 (1994), pp. 413-22; and Adrian Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State," Journal of Development Studies 31:3 (1995).
11. The concepts of credibility and reputation have been widely applied in the economics literature, especially in regard to government policies toward inflation and the money supply. See, for example, David Backus and John Driffill, "Inflation and Reputation," American Economic Review 75:3 (June 1985), pp. 530-38; and Alex Cukierman, Central Bank Strategy, Credibility, and Independence: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992).
12. The concepts of credibility and reputation have been widely applied in the economics literature, especially in regard to government policies toward inflation and the money supply. See, for example, David Backus and John Driffill, "Inflation and Reputation," American Economic Review 75:3 (June 1985), pp. 530-38; and Alex Cukierman, Central Bank Strategy, Credibility, and Independence: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992).
13. Government of Singapore (GOS), Ministry of Trade and Industry, The Singapore Economy: New Directions (Report of the Economic Committee) (Singapore: Singapore National Printers, 1986), p. 60. See also "PM Points Way to Success in Top League," Straits Times Weekly (STW), August 12, 1995, and "Slower Growth Occurring Sooner," November 7, 1998. In this last reference Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong is quoted as saying that although Singapore must now look forward to much slower economic growth: "We have not really matured or become a developed economy."
14. Government of Singapore (GOS), Ministry of Trade and Industry, The Singapore Economy: New Directions (Report of the Economic Committee) (Singapore: Singapore National Printers, 1986), p. 60. See also "PM Points Way to Success in Top League," Straits Times Weekly (STW), August 12, 1995, and "Slower Growth Occurring Sooner," November 7, 1998. In this last reference Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong is quoted as saying that although Singapore must now look forward to much slower economic growth: "We have not really matured or become a developed economy."
15. Government of Singapore (GOS), Ministry of Trade and Industry, The Singapore Economy: New Directions (Report of the Economic Committee) (Singapore: Singapore National Printers, 1986), p. 60. See also "PM Points Way to Success in Top League," Straits Times Weekly (STW), August 12, 1995, and "Slower Growth Occurring Sooner," November 7, 1998. In this last reference Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong is quoted as saying that although Singapore must now look forward to much slower economic growth: "We have not really matured or become a developed economy."
16. Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In," p. 405. See also Adrian Leftwich, "Governance, the State and the Politics of Development," Development and Change 25:2 (1994), pp. 378-80.
17. Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In," p. 405. See also Adrian Leftwich, "Governance, the State and the Politics of Development," Development and Change 25:2 (1994), pp. 378-80.
18. Gunnar Myrdal, Asian Drama, 3 vols. (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1968), vol. I, pp. 66-67, vol. II, pp. 894-99.
19. Gunnar Myrdal, Asian Drama, 3 vols. (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1968), vol. I, pp. 66-67, vol. II, pp. 894-99.
20. Stanley Please, "Saving Through Taxation - Reality or Mirage?" Finance and Development 4:1 (1967), pp. 24-32.
21. Pranab Bardhan, The Political Economy of Development in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 61.
22. Robert A. Scalapino, The Politics of Development: Perspectives on Twentieth-Century Asia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 45.
23. For discussion of this issue see Avanish K. Dixit, The Making of Economic Policy: A Transaction-Cost Politics Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), pp. 71-73; and Dani Rodrik, "Promises, Promises: Credible Policy Reform via Signalling," Economic Journal 99 (1989), pp. 756-72.
24. For discussion of this issue see Avanish K. Dixit, The Making of Economic Policy: A Transaction-Cost Politics Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), pp. 71-73; and Dani Rodrik, "Promises, Promises: Credible Policy Reform via Signalling," Economic Journal 99 (1989), pp. 756-72.
25. I. M. D. Little, "An Economic Reconnaissance," in Economic Growth and Structural Change in Taiwan, ed. Walter Galenson (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1979), p. 466.
26. Jose Edgardo Campos and Hilton L. Root, The Key to the Asian Miracle: Making Shared Growth Credible (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1996), p. 2.
27. Gustav Ranis, "Carlos Diaz-Alejandro: Historian and Prophet," in En Route to Modern Growth: Latin America in the 1990s, ed. Gustav Ranis (Washington, D.C.: Inter-American Development Bank, 1994), p. xi.
28. Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In," p. 410.
29. Lee Kuan Yew, "Social Revolution in Singapore," speech to the British Labour Party conference (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 2.
30. Linda Lim, Pang Eng Fong, and Ronald Findlay, "Singapore," in Five Small Open Economies, eds. Ronald Findlay and Stanislaw Wellisz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 104.
31. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses," p. 575.
32. Wade, Governing the Market, p. 296. See also Evans, Embedded Autonomy, pp. 55-58.
33. Wade, Governing the Market, p. 296. See also Evans, Embedded Autonomy, pp. 55-58.
34. Soon Teck-Wong and C. S. Tan, The Lessons of East Asia. Singapore: Public Policy and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1993), p. 40.
35. People's Action Party, The Tasks Ahead: PAP's Five-Year Plan 1959-1964 (Singapore: PETIR, 1959), see especially pp. 19-27.
36. Soon and Tan, The Lessons of East Asia, p. 40. See also W. G. Huff, The Economic Growth of Singapore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 320-45; and Linda Low et al., Challenge and Response: Thirty Years of the Economic Development Board (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1993).
37. Soon and Tan, The Lessons of East Asia, p. 40. See also W. G. Huff, The Economic Growth of Singapore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 320-45; and Linda Low et al., Challenge and Response: Thirty Years of the Economic Development Board (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1993).
38. Soon and Tan, The Lessons of East Asia, p. 40. See also W. G. Huff, The Economic Growth of Singapore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 320-45; and Linda Low et al., Challenge and Response: Thirty Years of the Economic Development Board (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1993).
39. For the 1980-89 data, see United Nations, World Investment Report 1992 (New York: United Nations, 1992), p. 317. For the 1985-95 data, see World Trade Organization, Annual Report 1996, vol. 1 (Geneva: World Trade Organization, 1996), 1, p. 47.
40. For the 1980-89 data, see United Nations, World Investment Report 1992 (New York: United Nations, 1992), p. 317. For the 1985-95 data, see World Trade Organization, Annual Report 1996, vol. 1 (Geneva: World Trade Organization, 1996), 1, p. 47.
41. Between 1960 and 1994 Singapore's capital stock grew at 13.1% annually, the highest rate in Asia, and its capital-labor ratio rose 20-fold. S. M. Collins and B. P. Bosworth, Economic Growth in East Asia: Accumulation Versus Assimilation, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, no. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1996), pp. 147, 127.
42. Edgar H. Schein, Strategic Pragmatism: The Culture of Singapore's Economic Development Board (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), p. 125.
43. Linda Low, "The Economic Development Board," in Low et al., Challenge and Response, p. 113.
44. Helen Hughes, "An External View," in Low et al. Challenge and Response, p. 21.
45. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses," and also Embedded Autonomy.
46. Toh Mun Heng and Linda Low, "Local Enterprises and Investment" in Low et al., Challenge and Response, p. 205; and Schein, Strategic Pragmatism, pp. 212-13.
47. Toh Mun Heng and Linda Low, "Local Enterprises and Investment" in Low et al., Challenge and Response, p. 205; and Schein, Strategic Pragmatism, pp. 212-13.
48. There is evidence, however, that even at the level of compensation costs by 1997 Singapore had lost a significant degree of competitiveness. "Singapore May Act to Cut Business Costs," Financial Times, November 12, 1998; and "10-Billion Packages to Cut Business Costs," STW, November 14, 1998.
49. There is evidence, however, that even at the level of compensation costs by 1997 Singapore had lost a significant degree of competitiveness. "Singapore May Act to Cut Business Costs," Financial Times, November 12, 1998; and "10-Billion Packages to Cut Business Costs," STW, November 14, 1998.
50. Timothy A. Manring, "Fiscal Incentives for Investment in Singapore: The Economic Expansion Incentives (Relief from Income Tax) Act of 1967 and the 1970 Amendment to the Act," Malayan Law Review 13:2 (1971), p. 21.
51. Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), Quarterly Economic Review: Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei (London: EIU, March 1970), p. 11.
52. Soon and Tan, The Lessons of East Asia, p. xi.
53. R. T. T. Hu, Budget Statement, 1996 (Singapore: Ministry of Information and the Arts, 1996), p. 18.
54. Viswanathan Selvaratnam, Innovations in Higher Education: Singapore at the Competitive Edge, World Bank Technical Paper, no. 222 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1994), pp. 18, 20, 39, 40, 75; and Geraldine Chen, "The Graduate and Skills Labour Markets: Dimensions of Manpower Management," in Economic Policy Management in Singapore, ed. Lim Chong Yah (Singapore: Addison-Wesley, 1996), pp. 83-103.
55. Viswanathan Selvaratnam, Innovations in Higher Education: Singapore at the Competitive Edge, World Bank Technical Paper, no. 222 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1994), pp. 18, 20, 39, 40, 75; and Geraldine Chen, "The Graduate and Skills Labour Markets: Dimensions of Manpower Management," in Economic Policy Management in Singapore, ed. Lim Chong Yah (Singapore: Addison-Wesley, 1996), pp. 83-103.
56. Simon Kuznets, Modem Economic Growth (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1966), pp. 236-40; and Gur Ofer, "Soviet Economic Growth: 1928-1985," Journal of Economic Literature 25 (1987) p. 1790.
57. Simon Kuznets, Modem Economic Growth (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1966), pp. 236-40; and Gur Ofer, "Soviet Economic Growth: 1928-1985," Journal of Economic Literature 25 (1987) p. 1790.
58. W. G. Huff, "What Is the Singapore Model of Economic Development?" Cambridge Journal of Economics 19:6 (1995), pp. 744-45. In 1990 combined income (corporate and personal) and property taxes financed 36.4% of government expenditure and it, in turn, was 21% of GDP. Income taxes alone amounted to 7.8% of GDP. See Government of Singapore, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Economic Survey of Singapore 1990 (Singapore: Singapore National Printers, 1991), p. 28. The latter figure compares with an average of some 12% of GDP in high income countries in the early 1990s.
59. W. G. Huff, "What Is the Singapore Model of Economic Development?" Cambridge Journal of Economics 19:6 (1995), pp. 744-45. In 1990 combined income (corporate and personal) and property taxes financed 36.4% of government expenditure and it, in turn, was 21% of GDP. Income taxes alone amounted to 7.8% of GDP. See Government of Singapore, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Economic Survey of Singapore 1990 (Singapore: Singapore National Printers, 1991), p. 28. The latter figure compares with an average of some 12% of GDP in high income countries in the early 1990s.
60. For a formal model of worker taxation in Singapore to pay subsidies to private enterprise, primarily multinationals, see J. F. Ermisch and W. G. Huff, "Hyper-Growth in an East Asian NIC: Public Policy and Capital Accumulation in Singapore," World Development 27:1 (1999).
61. Edward S. Mason et al., The Economic and Social Modernization of the Republic of Korea (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), p. 53 and see pp. 44-54.
62. Leroy P. Jones and Il SaKong, Government, Business, and Entrepreneurship in Economic Development: The Korean Case (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), p. 97. See also Mason et al., Economic and Social Modernization, p. 267.
63. Leroy P. Jones and Il SaKong, Government, Business, and Entrepreneurship in Economic Development: The Korean Case (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), p. 97. See also Mason et al., Economic and Social Modernization, p. 267.
64. Wade, Governing the Market, pp. 253-54, 295-96.
65. L. A. Mills, Southeast Asia: Illusion and Reality in Politics and Economics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1964), pp. 268.
66. Cho-Oon Khong, "Political Legitimacy through Managing Conformity," in Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia, ed. Muthiah Alagappa (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), p. 112.
67. "SM: When PAP Went Populist," STW, January 13, 1996.
68. Campos and Root, Key to the Asian Miracle, pp. 1-2, 28-29.
69. "No Slowing Down to Focus on Social Upgrading: SM Lee," STW, March 2, 1996; and Diane K. Mauzy, "Singapore's Dilemma: Coping with the Paradoxes of Success," Southeast Asian Affairs 1997 (1997), pp. 266-67.
70. "No Slowing Down to Focus on Social Upgrading: SM Lee," STW, March 2, 1996; and Diane K. Mauzy, "Singapore's Dilemma: Coping with the Paradoxes of Success," Southeast Asian Affairs 1997 (1997), pp. 266-67.
71. Rodrik, "Getting Interventions Right," pp. 75-78, 98.
72. W. G. Huff, "The Developmental State, Government, and Singapore's Economic Development since 1960," World Development 23:8 (1995), p. 1431.
73. Lee Sheng Yi, "Business Elites in Singapore," in Studies in ASEAN Sociology, eds. P. S. J. Chen and H. D. Evers (Singapore: Chopmen Enterprises, 1978), p. 50. See also Ezra F. Vogel, "A Little Dragon Tamed," in Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore, eds. Kernial Singh Sandhu and Paul Wheatley (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 105.
74. Lee Sheng Yi, "Business Elites in Singapore," in Studies in ASEAN Sociology, eds. P. S. J. Chen and H. D. Evers (Singapore: Chopmen Enterprises, 1978), p. 50. See also Ezra F. Vogel, "A Little Dragon Tamed," in Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore, eds. Kernial Singh Sandhu and Paul Wheatley (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), p. 105.
75. Linda Lim and Pang Eng Fong, Trade, Employment and Industrialisation in Singapore (Geneva: International Labour Organisation, 1986), p. 11.
76. Ian Buruma, God's Dust: A Modern Asian Journey (London: Jonathan Cape, 1989), p. 143.
77. "In Prosperous Singapore, Even the Elite Are Nervous About Speaking Out," New York Times, August 13, 1995.
78. Milton Friedman, "A Welfare State Syllogism" (lecture at the Commonwealth Club, San Francisco, June 1, 1990), p. 13.
79. "PM Goh Right in Rebutting Critics: SM Lee," STW, February 4, 1995.
80. "Singapore Party Celebrates Victory Before the Election," Financial Times, December 24, 1996.
81. "Upgrading Link Swung Vote in GE," STW, January 17,1998 ; and "Singapore's Voters Get a Choice: Slums or the Ruling Party," New York Times, December 31, 1996.
82. "Upgrading Link Swung Vote in GE," STW, January 17,1998 ; and "Singapore's Voters Get a Choice: Slums or the Ruling Party," New York Times, December 31, 1996.
83. "Go for 10-point CPF Cut, Says PM," STW, October 31, 1998. The recommended cut was by 10 percentage points from 20%.
84. Government of Singapore, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Economic Survey of Singapore, 1997, pp. 110, 121.
85. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental, and Other Apparatuses," p. 575.
86. Samuel P. Huntington, "Will More Countries Become Democratic?" Political Science Quarterly 99 (1984); and James Cotton, "Korea in Comparative Perspective," in Politics and Policy in the New Korean State, ed. James Cotton (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995).
87. Samuel P. Huntington, "Will More Countries Become Democratic?" Political Science Quarterly 99 (1984); and James Cotton, "Korea in Comparative Perspective," in Politics and Policy in the New Korean State, ed. James Cotton (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995).
88. Gary Rodan, "Singapore in 1996: Extended Election Fever," Asian Survey, 37:2 (February 1997), p. 175.
89. Khong, "Political Legitimacy through Managing Conformity," pp. 122-23.
90. Shee Poon Kim, "Singapore in 1991: Endorsement of the New Administration," Asian Survey 32:2 (February 1992), p. 119.
91. Evans, Embedded Autonomy, pp. 12-13; and Chan Heng Chee, "The PAP and the Structuring of the Political System," in Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore, eds. Kernial Singh Sandhu and Paul Wheatley (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), pp. 82-84.
92. Evans, Embedded Autonomy, pp. 12-13; and Chan Heng Chee, "The PAP and the Structuring of the Political System," in Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore, eds. Kernial Singh Sandhu and Paul Wheatley (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989), pp. 82-84.
93. Henry J. Bruton, "Review of the Economic Growth of Singapore," Journal of Regional Science 36:2 (1996), p. 320.
94. Tsao Yuan, "Growth without Productivity: Singapore Manufacturing in the 1970s," Journal of Development Economics 18 (1985); and Tsao Yuan, "Sources of Growth Accounting for the Singapore Economy," in Singapore: Resources and Growth, eds. C. Y. Lim and P. Lloyd (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1986). These articles were published under the surname of Tsao. The author later wrote as Lee (Tsao) Yuan and more recently as Lee Tsao Yuan. She is a nominated member of Parliament in Singapore.
95. Tsao Yuan, "Growth without Productivity: Singapore Manufacturing in the 1970s," Journal of Development Economics 18 (1985); and Tsao Yuan, "Sources of Growth Accounting for the Singapore Economy," in Singapore: Resources and Growth, eds. C. Y. Lim and P. Lloyd (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1986). These articles were published under the surname of Tsao. The author later wrote as Lee (Tsao) Yuan and more recently as Lee Tsao Yuan. She is a nominated member of Parliament in Singapore.
96. Alwyn Young, "A Tale of Two Cities: Factor Accumulation and Technical Change in Hong Kong and Singapore," NBER Macroeconomics Annual 7 (1992); "Lessons from the East Asian NICs: A Contrarian View," European Economic Review 38:3/4 (1994); "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics 110:3 (1995); and Alternative Estimates of Productivity Growth in the Asian NIC's: A Comment on the Findings of Chang-Tai Hsieh, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, no. 6657 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998). This last paper of Young's was in response to Chang-Tai Hsieh, "What Explains the Industrial Revolution in East Asia? Evidence from Factor Markets" (mimeograph, Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley, 1998).
97. Alwyn Young, "A Tale of Two Cities: Factor Accumulation and Technical Change in Hong Kong and Singapore," NBER Macroeconomics Annual 7 (1992); "Lessons from the East Asian NICs: A Contrarian View," European Economic Review 38:3/4 (1994); "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics 110:3 (1995); and Alternative Estimates of Productivity Growth in the Asian NIC's: A Comment on the Findings of Chang-Tai Hsieh, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, no. 6657 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998). This last paper of Young's was in response to Chang-Tai Hsieh, "What Explains the Industrial Revolution in East Asia? Evidence from Factor Markets" (mimeograph, Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley, 1998).
98. Alwyn Young, "A Tale of Two Cities: Factor Accumulation and Technical Change in Hong Kong and Singapore," NBER Macroeconomics Annual 7 (1992); "Lessons from the East Asian NICs: A Contrarian View," European Economic Review 38:3/4 (1994); "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics 110:3 (1995); and Alternative Estimates of Productivity Growth in the Asian NIC's: A Comment on the Findings of Chang-Tai Hsieh, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, no. 6657 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998). This last paper of Young's was in response to Chang-Tai Hsieh, "What Explains the Industrial Revolution in East Asia? Evidence from Factor Markets" (mimeograph, Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley, 1998).
99. Alwyn Young, "A Tale of Two Cities: Factor Accumulation and Technical Change in Hong Kong and Singapore," NBER Macroeconomics Annual 7 (1992); "Lessons from the East Asian NICs: A Contrarian View," European Economic Review 38:3/4 (1994); "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics 110:3 (1995); and Alternative Estimates of Productivity Growth in the Asian NIC's: A Comment on the Findings of Chang-Tai Hsieh, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, no. 6657 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998). This last paper of Young's was in response to Chang-Tai Hsieh, "What Explains the Industrial Revolution in East Asia? Evidence from Factor Markets" (mimeograph, Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley, 1998).
100. Alwyn Young, "A Tale of Two Cities: Factor Accumulation and Technical Change in Hong Kong and Singapore," NBER Macroeconomics Annual 7 (1992); "Lessons from the East Asian NICs: A Contrarian View," European Economic Review 38:3/4 (1994); "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics 110:3 (1995); and Alternative Estimates of Productivity Growth in the Asian NIC's: A Comment on the Findings of Chang-Tai Hsieh, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, no. 6657 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998). This last paper of Young's was in response to Chang-Tai Hsieh, "What Explains the Industrial Revolution in East Asia? Evidence from Factor Markets" (mimeograph, Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley, 1998).
101. Fot-Chyi Wong and Wee-Beng Gan, "Total Factor Productivity Growth in the Singapore Manufacturing Industries During the 1980s," Journal of Asian Economics 5:2 (1994); V. V. Bhanjol Rao and Christopher Lee, "Sources of Growth in the Singapore Economy and Its Manufacturing and Service Sectors," Singapore Economic Review 40:1 (1995); Peter Wilson, "Sources of Economic Growth and Development in ASEAN," Singapore Economic Review 40:2 (1995); Mun-Heng Toh and Linda Low, "Differential Total Factor Productivity in the Four Dragons: The Singapore Case," Journal of International Trade and Economic Development 5:2 (1996); and Collins and Bosworth, "Economic Growth in East Asia."
102. Fot-Chyi Wong and Wee-Beng Gan, "Total Factor Productivity Growth in the Singapore Manufacturing Industries During the 1980s," Journal of Asian Economics 5:2 (1994); V. V. Bhanjol Rao and Christopher Lee, "Sources of Growth in the Singapore Economy and Its Manufacturing and Service Sectors," Singapore Economic Review 40:1 (1995); Peter Wilson, "Sources of Economic Growth and Development in ASEAN," Singapore Economic Review 40:2 (1995); Mun-Heng Toh and Linda Low, "Differential Total Factor Productivity in the Four Dragons: The Singapore Case," Journal of International Trade and Economic Development 5:2 (1996); and Collins and Bosworth, "Economic Growth in East Asia."
103. Fot-Chyi Wong and Wee-Beng Gan, "Total Factor Productivity Growth in the Singapore Manufacturing Industries During the 1980s," Journal of Asian Economics 5:2 (1994); V. V. Bhanjol Rao and Christopher Lee, "Sources of Growth in the Singapore Economy and Its Manufacturing and Service Sectors," Singapore Economic Review 40:1 (1995); Peter Wilson, "Sources of Economic Growth and Development in ASEAN," Singapore Economic Review 40:2 (1995); Mun-Heng Toh and Linda Low, "Differential Total Factor Productivity in the Four Dragons: The Singapore Case," Journal of International Trade and Economic Development 5:2 (1996); and Collins and Bosworth, "Economic Growth in East Asia."
104. Fot-Chyi Wong and Wee-Beng Gan, "Total Factor Productivity Growth in the Singapore Manufacturing Industries During the 1980s," Journal of Asian Economics 5:2 (1994); V. V. Bhanjol Rao and Christopher Lee, "Sources of Growth in the Singapore Economy and Its Manufacturing and Service Sectors," Singapore Economic Review 40:1 (1995); Peter Wilson, "Sources of Economic Growth and Development in ASEAN," Singapore Economic Review 40:2 (1995); Mun-Heng Toh and Linda Low, "Differential Total Factor Productivity in the Four Dragons: The Singapore Case," Journal of International Trade and Economic Development 5:2 (1996); and Collins and Bosworth, "Economic Growth in East Asia."
105. Fot-Chyi Wong and Wee-Beng Gan, "Total Factor Productivity Growth in the Singapore Manufacturing Industries During the 1980s," Journal of Asian Economics 5:2 (1994); V. V. Bhanjol Rao and Christopher Lee, "Sources of Growth in the Singapore Economy and Its Manufacturing and Service Sectors," Singapore Economic Review 40:1 (1995); Peter Wilson, "Sources of Economic Growth and Development in ASEAN," Singapore Economic Review 40:2 (1995); Mun-Heng Toh and Linda Low, "Differential Total Factor Productivity in the Four Dragons: The Singapore Case," Journal of International Trade and Economic Development 5:2 (1996); and Collins and Bosworth, "Economic Growth in East Asia."
106. For discussion of the methodological limitations of TFP growth as a measure, see E. K. Y. Chen, "The Total Factor Productivity Debate: Determinants of Economic Growth in East Asia," Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 11:1 (1997); and K. S. Goh and L. Low, "Beyond 'Miracles' and Total Factor Productivity," ASEAN Economic Bulletin 13:1 (1996). The possibility of measurement error has been stressed, in particular, by Hsieh in What Explains. Even with such error, however, Singapore's TFP growth remains low. An alternative to TFP growth as a measure of technical progress is the idea of technological capacity. Its two most important components are the stock of human capital and spending on R&D. Both are low in Singapore relative to the other Asian NICs of South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong as well as the West and Japan. The best indicator of human capital is mean years of schooling of the population aged 25 and over. In Singapore in 1995-96 this was 5.5 for men and 4.5 for women, less than in Malaysia and roughly half the levels in South Korea and Taiwan. As late as 1984 R&D spending in Singapore was 0.21% of GDP and although this proportion reached 1% in 1991 and 1.35% by 1996, it was still appreciably behind spending in South Korea and Taiwan and compared with 2.5% of GDP in OECD countries in 1985-90. For analysis of these statistics, comparison with other Asian countries, and a discussion of the educational system in Singapore, see W. G. Huff, "Singapore's Economic Development: Four Lessons and Some Doubts," Oxford Development Studies 27:1 (1999).
107. For discussion of the methodological limitations of TFP growth as a measure, see E. K. Y. Chen, "The Total Factor Productivity Debate: Determinants of Economic Growth in East Asia," Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 11:1 (1997); and K. S. Goh and L. Low, "Beyond 'Miracles' and Total Factor Productivity," ASEAN Economic Bulletin 13:1 (1996). The possibility of measurement error has been stressed, in particular, by Hsieh in What Explains. Even with such error, however, Singapore's TFP growth remains low. An alternative to TFP growth as a measure of technical progress is the idea of technological capacity. Its two most important components are the stock of human capital and spending on R&D. Both are low in Singapore relative to the other Asian NICs of South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong as well as the West and Japan. The best indicator of human capital is mean years of schooling of the population aged 25 and over. In Singapore in 1995-96 this was 5.5 for men and 4.5 for women, less than in Malaysia and roughly half the levels in South Korea and Taiwan. As late as 1984 R&D spending in Singapore was 0.21% of GDP and although this proportion reached 1% in 1991 and 1.35% by 1996, it was still appreciably behind spending in South Korea and Taiwan and compared with 2.5% of GDP in OECD countries in 1985-90. For analysis of these statistics, comparison with other Asian countries, and a discussion of the educational system in Singapore, see W. G. Huff, "Singapore's Economic Development: Four Lessons and Some Doubts," Oxford Development Studies 27:1 (1999).
108. For discussion of the methodological limitations of TFP growth as a measure, see E. K. Y. Chen, "The Total Factor Productivity Debate: Determinants of Economic Growth in East Asia," Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 11:1 (1997); and K. S. Goh and L. Low, "Beyond 'Miracles' and Total Factor Productivity," ASEAN Economic Bulletin 13:1 (1996). The possibility of measurement error has been stressed, in particular, by Hsieh in What Explains. Even with such error, however, Singapore's TFP growth remains low. An alternative to TFP growth as a measure of technical progress is the idea of technological capacity. Its two most important components are the stock of human capital and spending on R&D. Both are low in Singapore relative to the other Asian NICs of South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong as well as the West and Japan. The best indicator of human capital is mean years of schooling of the population aged 25 and over. In Singapore in 1995-96 this was 5.5 for men and 4.5 for women, less than in Malaysia and roughly half the levels in South Korea and Taiwan. As late as 1984 R&D spending in Singapore was 0.21% of GDP and although this proportion reached 1% in 1991 and 1.35% by 1996, it was still appreciably behind spending in South Korea and Taiwan and compared with 2.5% of GDP in OECD countries in 1985-90. For analysis of these statistics, comparison with other Asian countries, and a discussion of the educational system in Singapore, see W. G. Huff, "Singapore's Economic Development: Four Lessons and Some Doubts," Oxford Development Studies 27:1 (1999).
109. For discussion of the methodological limitations of TFP growth as a measure, see E. K. Y. Chen, "The Total Factor Productivity Debate: Determinants of Economic Growth in East Asia," Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 11:1 (1997); and K. S. Goh and L. Low, "Beyond 'Miracles' and Total Factor Productivity," ASEAN Economic Bulletin 13:1 (1996). The possibility of measurement error has been stressed, in particular, by Hsieh in What Explains. Even with such error, however, Singapore's TFP growth remains low. An alternative to TFP growth as a measure of technical progress is the idea of technological capacity. Its two most important components are the stock of human capital and spending on R&D. Both are low in Singapore relative to the other Asian NICs of South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong as well as the West and Japan. The best indicator of human capital is mean years of schooling of the population aged 25 and over. In Singapore in 1995-96 this was 5.5 for men and 4.5 for women, less than in Malaysia and roughly half the levels in South Korea and Taiwan. As late as 1984 R&D spending in Singapore was 0.21% of GDP and although this proportion reached 1% in 1991 and 1.35% by 1996, it was still appreciably behind spending in South Korea and Taiwan and compared with 2.5% of GDP in OECD countries in 1985-90. For analysis of these statistics, comparison with other Asian countries, and a discussion of the educational system in Singapore, see W. G. Huff, "Singapore's Economic Development: Four Lessons and Some Doubts," Oxford Development Studies 27:1 (1999).
110. Gur Ofer, "Soviet Economic Growth, pp. 814-20; and William Easterly and Stanley Fischer, The Soviet Economic Decline: Historical and Republican Data, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, no. 4735 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1994), pp. 23-24.
111. Gur Ofer, "Soviet Economic Growth, pp. 814-20; and William Easterly and Stanley Fischer, The Soviet Economic Decline: Historical and Republican Data, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, no. 4735 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1994), pp. 23-24.
112. Paul Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Foreign Affairs 73:6 (1994), p. 70. See J. Page, "The East Asian Miracle: Four Lessons for Development Policy," National Bureau of Economic Research Macroeconomics Annual 1994, 9 (1994), p. 233.
113. Paul Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Foreign Affairs 73:6 (1994), p. 70. See J. Page, "The East Asian Miracle: Four Lessons for Development Policy," National Bureau of Economic Research Macroeconomics Annual 1994, 9 (1994), p. 233.
114. "Home-Grown Ideas 'Must Fuel Growth'," STW, December 9, 1995.
115. Tsao, "Growth without Productivity"; and Young, "A Tale of Two Cities."
116. Tsao, "Growth without Productivity"; and Young, "A Tale of Two Cities."
117. J. Fagerberg, "Technology and International Differences in Growth Rates," Journal of Economic Literature 32:3 (1994), p. 1161.
118. In 1980 over four-fifths of those working in Singapore had education only to the primary level or less and in 1997 this proportion was still two-fifths (Huff, "Singapore's Economic Development").
119. David Martin Jones and David Brown, "Singapore and the Myth of the Liberalizing Middle Class," Pacific Review 7:1 (1994), p. 84.
120. Peter Evans, "State Structures, Government-Business Relations, and Economic Transformation," in Business and the State in Developing Countries, eds. Sylvia Maxwell and Ben Ross Schneider (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997), p. 74.
121. "S'pore Will Survive Me: S[enior] M[nister] [Lee Kuan Yew]," STW, June 8, 1996. See also "Opposition Exerts 'Barely Any Pressure' on Govt, Says BG Lee," STW, April 15, 1995.
122. "S'pore Will Survive Me: S[enior] M[nister] [Lee Kuan Yew]," STW, June 8, 1996. See also "Opposition Exerts 'Barely Any Pressure' on Govt, Says BG Lee," STW, April 15, 1995.
123. Rao and Lee, "Sources of Growth in the Singapore Economy"; and Wilson, "Sources of Economic Growth and Development in ASEAN," p. 242.
124. Rao and Lee, "Sources of Growth in the Singapore Economy"; and Wilson, "Sources of Economic Growth and Development in ASEAN," p. 242.
125. "Asian Economic System Still Strong," STW, December 20, 1997.
126. "Being Creative about Creativity," STW, September 14, 1996; "Three Priorities for S'pore Education System," STW, February 1, 1997; "Top Ten Hotspots of S'pore's Political Landscape in 1997," STW, January 3, 1998.
127. "Being Creative about Creativity," STW, September 14, 1996; "Three Priorities for S'pore Education System," STW, February 1, 1997; "Top Ten Hotspots of S'pore's Political Landscape in 1997," STW, January 3, 1998.
128. "Being Creative about Creativity," STW, September 14, 1996; "Three Priorities for S'pore Education System," STW, February 1, 1997; "Top Ten Hotspots of S'pore's Political Landscape in 1997," STW, January 3, 1998.
129. Ofer, "Soviet Economic Growth," pp. 1809-14, 1825-26.
130. "SLORC Out to Bury Suu Kyi's Hopes," Financial Times, September 14, 1996.
131. Hal Hill, "Indonesia's Industrial Policy and Performance: 'Orthodoxy' Vindicated," Economic Development and Cultural Change 45:1 (1996); and Hal Hill, "What's Scaring Indonesia's Investors," Asian Wall Street Journal, March 5-6, 1999.
132. Hal Hill, "Indonesia's Industrial Policy and Performance: 'Orthodoxy' Vindicated," Economic Development and Cultural Change 45:1 (1996); and Hal Hill, "What's Scaring Indonesia's Investors," Asian Wall Street Journal, March 5-6, 1999.
133. Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In," p. 414; and Vernon W. Ruttan, "What Happened to Political Development?" Economic Development and Cultural Change 39:2 (1991), p. 284.
134. Leftwich, "Bringing Politics Back In," p. 414; and Vernon W. Ruttan, "What Happened to Political Development?" Economic Development and Cultural Change 39:2 (1991), p. 284.