Alcohol use in HIV patients: What we don't know may hurt us

International Journal of STD and AIDS

Volumn 10, Issue 9, 1999, Pages 561-570

  Petry, Nancy M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

AIDS; Alcohol abuse; Alcohol dependence; HIV; Medication compliance

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; ZIDOVUDINE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ALCOHOL ABUSE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; CANCER; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; EPILEPSY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNOMODULATION; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ABUSE; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; MENTAL DISEASE; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PEPTIC ULCER; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCREENING TEST; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ALCOHOL-RELATED DISORDERS; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; PREVALENCE;

EID: 0032855470     PISSN: 09564624     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1258/0956462991914654     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. First 500,000 AIDS cases - United States 1995. MMWR 1995;46:849-53
2. Rosenberg PS. Scope of the AIDS epidemic in the United States. Science 1995;270:1372-5
3. Rutherford GW, Lifson AR, Hessol NA, et al. Course of HIV-1 infection in a cohort of homosexual and bisexual men: An 11-year follow-up study. BMJ 1990;301:1183-8
4. Regier DA, Boyd JH, Burke JD, et al. One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:977-86
5. Mahler J, Yi D, Sacks M, et al. Undetected HIV infection among patients admitted to an alcohol rehabilitation unit. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:439-40
6. Jacobson JM, Worner TM, Sacks HS, Lieber CS. Human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus infections in a New York City alcoholic population. J Stud Alcohol 1992;53:76-9
7. Lee HK, Travin S, Bluestone H. Relationship between HIV-1 antibody seropositivity and alcohol/non-intravenous drug abuse among psychiatric inpatients. Am J Addict 1992;1:85-8
8. Schleifer SJ, Keller SE, Franklin JE, LaFarge S, Miller SI. HIV seropositivity in inner-city alcoholics. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1990;41:248-54
9. Schleifer SJ, Keller SE, LaFarge S, Dhaibar Y, Shiflett SC, Eckholdt HM. Human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 infection in an inner-city alcohol treatment program. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1996;20:75-80
10. Avins AL, Woods WJ, Lindan CP, Hudes ES, Clark W, Hulley SB. HIV infection and risk behaviors among heterosexuals in alcohol treatment programs. JAMA 1994;271:515-18
11. Fullilove MT, Wiley J, Fullilove RE, III, Golden E, et al. Risk for AIDS in multiethnic neighborhoods in San Francisco, California: The population-based AMEN Study. West J Med 1992;157:32-40
12. Brown GR, Rundell JR, McManis SE, Kendall SN, Zachary R, Temoshok L. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in early stages of HIV infection. Psychosom Med 1992;54:588-601
13. Atkinson JH, Grant I, Kennedy CJ, Richman DD, Spector SA, McCutchan JA. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among men infected with human immunodeficiency virus: A controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:859-64
14. Dew MA, Becker JT, Sanchez J, et al. Prevalence and predictors of depressive, anxiety, and substance use disorders in HIV-infected and uninfected men: A long-itudinal evaluation. Psychol Med 1997;27:395-409
15. Rosenbeger PH, Bornstein RA, Nasrallah HA, et el. Psychopathology in human immunodeficiency virus infection: Lifetime and current assessment. Compr Psychiatry 1993;34:150-8
16. Summers J, Zisook S, Atkinson JH, et al. Psychiatric morbidity associated with acquired immune deficiency syndrome-related grief resolution. J Nerv Ment Dis 1995;183:384-9
17. Lefever F, O'Leary B, Moran M, et al. Alcohol consumption among HIV-infected patients. J Gen Intern Med 1995;10:458-60
18. Ruchkina EV, Beliaeva VV. Alcohol abuse in HIV infection. Terapevticheskii Arkhiv 1996;68:51-3
19. Balla AK, Lischner HW, Pomerantz RJ, Bagasra O. Human studies on alcohol and susceptibility to HIV infection. Alcohol 1994;11:99-103
20. Jerrells TR, Marietta CA, Bone G, Weight FF, Eckardt MJ. Ethanol-associated immunosuppression. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 1988;44:173-85
21. Klimas NG, Morgan R, Blaney NT, et al. Alcohol and immune function in HIV-1 seronegative, HTLV-I/II seronegative and positive men on methadone. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1990;14:103-11
22. Mili F, Flanders WD, Boring JR, Annest JL, DeStefano F. The associations of alcohol drinking and drinking cessation to measure of the immune system in middle-aged men. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1992;16:688-94
23. Pillai R, Nair BS, Watson RR. AIDS, drugs of abuse and the immune system: A complex immunotoxicological network. Arch Toxicol 1991;65:609-17
24. Watson RR, Borgs P, Witte M, et al. Alcohol, immunomodulation and disease. Alcohol Alcohol 1994;29:131-9
25. Watzl B, Watson RR. Role of alcohol abuse in nutritional immunosuppression. J Nutr 1992;122:733-7
26. Bagasra O, Kajdacsy-Balla A, Lischner HW, Pomerantz RJ. Alcohol intake increases human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Infect Dis 1993;167:789-97
27. Critchlow B. The powers of John Barleycom: Beliefs about the effects of alcohol on social behavior. Am Psychol 1986;41:751-64
28. Robertson JA, Plant MA. Alcohol, sex, and risks of HIV infection. Drug Alcohol Depend 1988;22:75-8
29. Sokolow L, Welte J, Hynes G, Lyons J. Multiple substance use of alcoholics. Br J Addict 1981;76:147-58
30. Donovan JE, Jessor R, Costa FM. Adolescent health behavior and conventionality-unconventionality: An extension of problem-behavior therapy. Health Psychol 1991;10:52-61
31. Donovan JE, Jessor R. Structure of problem behavior in adolescence and young adulthood. J Consult Clin Psychol 1985;53:890-904
32. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edn. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994
33. Williams R, Davis M. Alcoholic liver diseases: Basic pathology and clinical variants. In: Edwards G, Grant M, eds. Alcoholism: New Knowledge and New Responses. London: Croom Helm, 1977:157-78
34. Kissen B, Kaley MM. Alcohol and cancer. In: Kissen B, Begleiter H, eds. The Biology of Alcoholism, Vol. 3. New York: Plenum, 1974:481-511
35. Chou SP, Grant BF, Dawson DA. Medical consequences of alcohol consumption - United States, 1992. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1986;20:1423-9
36. Marsden CD. Neurological disorders induced by alcohol. In: Edwards G, Grant M, eds. Alcoholism: New Knowledge and New Responses. London: Croom Helm, 1977:189-98
37. Kranzler HR, Mason B, Modesto-Lowe V. Prevalence, diagnosis and treatment of comorbid mood disorders and alcoholism. In: Kranzler H, Rounsaville BJ, eds. Dual Diagnosis and Treatment. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998:107-36
38. MacGregor RR. Alcohol and immune defense. JAMA 1986;256:1474-9
39. Hays RB, Turner H, Coates TJ. Social support, AIDS-related symptoms and depression among gay men. J Consult Clin Psychol 1992;60:463-9
40. Burback JH, Barrett DC, Stall RD, Chesney MA, Ekstrand ML, Coates TJ. Depressive symptoms and CD4 lymphocyte decline among HIV-infected men. JAMA 1993;270:2568-73
41. Herbert TB, Cohen S. Depression and immunity: A meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull 1993;113:472-86
42. Crum RM, Galai N, Cohn S, Celentano DD, Vlahov D. Alcohol use and T-lymphocyte subsets among injection drug users with HIV-1 infection: A prospective analysis. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1996;20:364-71
43. Munoz A, Carey V, Saah AJ, et al. Predictors of decline in CD4 lymphocytes in a cohort of homosexual men infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1988;1:396-404
44. Bagasra O, Howeedy R, Dorio R, Kajdacsy-Balla A. Functional analysis of T-cell subsets in chronic experimental alcoholism. Immunology 1987;61:63-9
45. Glassman AB, Bennett CE, Randall CL. Effects of ethyl alcohol on human peripheral lymphocytes. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1985;109:540-2
46. Pol S, Artru P, Thepot V, Berthelot P, Nalpas B. Improvement of the CD4 cell count after alcohol withdrawal in HIV-positive alcoholic patients. AIDS 1996;10:1293-4
47. McArthur JC, Becker S, Parisi JE, et al. Neuropathological changes in early HIV-1 dementia. Ann Neurol 1989;26:681-4
48. Fong IW, Read S, Wainberg MA, Chia WK, Major C. Alcoholism and rapid progression to AIDS after seroconversion. Clin Infect Dis 1994;19:337-8
49. Fein G, Biggins CA, MacKay S. Alcohol abuse and HIV infection have additive effects on frontal cortex function as measured by auditory evoked potential P3A latency. Soc Biol Psychiatry 1995;37:183-95
50. Bornstein RA, Fama R, Rosenbeger P, et al. Drug and alcohol use and neuropsychological performance in asymptomatic HIV infection. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993;5:254-9
51. Bachbinder SP, Katz MH, Hessol NA, O'Malley PM, Holmberg SD. Long-term HIV-1 infection without immunologic progression. AIDS 1994;8:1123-8
52. Kaslow RA, Blackwelder WC, Ostrow DG, et al. No evidence for a role of alcohol or other psychoactive drugs in accelerating immunodeficiency in HIV-1 positive individuals: A report from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. JAMA 1989;261:3424-9
53. Berg JS, Dischler J, Wagner DJ, et al. Medication compliance: A health care problem. Ann Pharmacother 1993;27(suppl): S1-24
54. Eraker SA, Kirscht JP, Becker MH. Understanding and improving patient compliance. Ann Intern Med 1984;100:258-68
55. Meichenbaum D, Turk DC. Treatment adherence: Terminology, incidence, and conceptualization. In: Facilitating Treatment Adherence. New York: Plenum, 1987:19-39
56. Sackett DL, Haynes RB. Compliance with Therapeutic Regimens. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976
57. Haynes RB. Determinants of compliance: The disease and the mechanics of treatment. In: Haynes RB, Taylor DW, Sackett DL, eds. Compliance in Health Care. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979:46-62
58. Vanhove GF, Schapiro JM, Winter MA, Merigan TC, Blaschke TF. Patient compliance and drug failure in protease inhibitor monotherapy (letter). JAMA 1996;276:1955-6
59. Aversa SL, Kimberlin C. Psychosocial aspects of antiretroviral medication use among HIV patients. Patient Educ Couns 1996;29:207-19
60. Batki SL, Ferrando SJ, Manfredi LB, London J, Pattillo J, Delucchi K. Psychiatric disorders, drug use, and medical status in 84 injection drug users with HIV disease. Am J Addict 1996;5:249-58
61. Ickovics JR, Meisler AW. Adherence in AIDS clinical trials: A framework for clinical research and clinical care. J Clin Epidemiol 1997;50:385-91
62. Muma RD, Ross WW, Parcel GC, Pollard RB. Zidovudine adherence among individuals with HIV infection. AIDS Care 1995;7:439-48
63. Selwyn PA, Feingold AF, Iezza A, et al. Primary care for patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in a methadone maintenance treatment program. Ann Intern Med 1989;110:761-3
64. Ferrando SJ, Wall TL, Batki SL, Sorensen JL. Psychiatric morbidity, illicit drug use and adherence to zidovudine (AZT) among injection drug users with HIV disease. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1996;22:475-87
65. Samet JH, Libman H, Steger KA, et al. Compliance with zidovudine therapy in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus, type 1: A cross-sectional study in a municipal hospital clinic. Am J Med 1992;92:495-502
66. Singh N, Squier C, Sivek C, Wagener M, Nguyen MH, Yu VL. Determinants of compliance with antiretroviral therapy in patients with human immunodeficiency virus: Prospective assessment with implication for enhancing compliance. AIDS Care 1996;8:261-9
67. Fischl MA, Richman DD, Hansen N, et al. The safety and efficacy of zidovudine (AZT) in the treatment of subjects with mildly symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) infection: A double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Meal 1990;112:727-37
68. Freeman RC, Rodriquez GM, French JF. Compliance with AZT treatment regimen of HIV-seropositive injection drug users: A neglected issue. AIDS Educ Prev 1996;8:58-71
69. Broers B, Morabia A, Hirschel B. A cohort study of drug users' compliance with zidovudine treatment. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:1121-7
70. Anderson RJ, Kirk LM. Methods of improving patient compliance in chronic disease states. Arch Intern Med 1982;142:1673-5
71. Batki SL, Ferrando SJ. Diagnosis and treatment of substance use disorders in patients with HIV infection. Int Rev Psychiatry 1996;8:245-52
72. Moore RD, Hidalgo J, Sugland BW, Chaisson RE. Zidovudine and the natural history of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991;324:1412-16
73. Stein MD, Piette J, Mor V, et al. Differences in access to zidovudine (AZT) among symptomatic HIV-infected persons. J Gen Intern Med 1991;6:35-40
74. McArthur JC, Selnes OA, Glass JD, Hoover DR, Bacellar H. HIV dementia: Incidence and risk factors. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis 1994;72:251-72
75. Schmitt FA, Dickson LR, Brouwers P. Neuropsychological response to antiretroviral therapy in HIV infection. In: Grant I, Martin A, eds. Neuropsychology of HIV Infection. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994:276-94
76. Darber H, Crawford GB, Watson RR. Alcohol and the human immune system. In: Watson RR, ed. Alcohol, Drugs of Abuse and Immunomodulation. Advances in the Biosciences, Vol. 86. New York: Pergamon Press, 1993:5-9
77. Burman WJ, Cohn DL, Rietmeijer CA, Judson FN, Sbarbaro JA, Reves RR. Non-compliance with directly observed therapy for tuberculosis. Epidemiology and effect on the outcome of treatment. Chest 1997;111:1168-73
78. Cox M, Blount JP, Crowe PA, Singh SP. Diabetic patients' alcohol use and quality of life: Relationships with prescribed treatment compliance among older males. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1996;20:327-31
79. Paris W, Muchmore J, Pribil A, Zuhdi N, Cooper DKC. Study of the relative incidences of psychosocial factors before and after heart transplantation and the influence of post-transplantation psychosocial factors on heart transplantation outcome. J Heart Lung Transpl 1994;13:424-32
80. Crowe LC, George WH. Alcohol and human sexuality: Review and integration. Psychol Bull 1989;105:374-86
81. MacDonald TK, Zanna MP, Fong GT. Why common sense goes out the window: The effects of alcohol on intentions to use condoms. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1996;22:763-75
82. Stall R. The prevention of HIV infection associated with drug and alcohol use during sexual activity. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse 1988;7:73-88
83. Wilson GT, Lawson DG. Expectancies, alcohol and sexual arousal in male social drinkers. J Abnorm Psychol 1976;89:489-97
84. Temple MT, Leigh BC, Schaffer J. Unsafe sexual behavior and alcohol use at the event level: Results of a national survey. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1993;6:393-401
85. Temple MT, Leigh BC. Alcohol consumption and unsafe sexual behavior in discrete events. J Sex Res 1992;29:207-19
86. Gold RS, Karmiloff-Smith A, Skinner MJ, Morton J. Situational factors and thought processes associated with unprotected intercourse in heterosexual students. AIDS Care 1992;4:305-23
87. Stall R, McKusick L, Wiley J, Coates TJ, Ostrow OG. Alcohol and drug use during sexual activity and compliance with safe sex guidelines for AIDS: The AIDS Behavioral Research Project. Health Educ Q 1986;13:359-71
88. Penkower L, Dew MA, Kingsley L, et al. Behavioral, health and psychosocial factors and risk for HIV infection among sexually active homosexual men: The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Am J Pub Health 1991;81:194-6
89. Stall R, Barret D, Bye L, et al. A comparison of younger and older gay men's HIV risk-taking behaviours: The communication technologies 1989 cross-sectional survey. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992;5:682-7
90. Desiderato LL, Crawford HG. Risky sexual behavior in college students: Relationships between number of sexual partners, disclosure of previous risky behavior, and alcohol use. J Youth Adoles 1995;24:55-68
91. Leigh BC. Alcohol consumption and sexual activity as reported with a diary technique. J Abnorm Psychol 1993;102:490-3
92. Leigh BC, Miller P. The relationship of substance use with sex to the use of condoms among young adults in two urban areas in Scotland. AIDS Educ Prev 1995;7:278-84
93. Weatherburn P, Davies PM, Hickson FCI, Hunt AJ, McManus TJ, Coxon APM. No connection between alcohol use and unsafe sex among gay and bisexual men. AIDS 1993;7:115-19
94. Bagnall G, Plant M, Warwick W. Alcohol, drugs and AIDS-related risks: Results from a prospective study. AIDS Care 1990;2:309-17
95. Leigh BC, Stall R. Substance use and risky sexual behavior for exposure to HIV. Issues in methodology, interpretation and prevention. Am Psychol 1993;48:1035-45
96. Morgan-Thomas R, Plant MA, Plant ML, Sales J. Risk of infection among clients of the sex industry in Scotland. BMJ 1990;31:525
97. Westerburg VS. Alcohol measuring scales may influence conclusions about the role of alcohol in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk and progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Am J Epidemiol 1992;135:719-25
98. Gordon CM, Carey MP, Carey KB. Effects of a drinking event on behavioral skills and condom attitudes in men: Implications for HIV risk from a controlled experiment. Health Psychol 1997;16:490-5
99. Fitterling JM, Matens PB, Scotti JR, Allen JS. AIDS risk behavior and knowledge among heterosexual alcoholics and non-injecting drug users. Addiction 1993;88:1257-65
100. Scheidt DM, Windle M. Individual and situational markers of condom use and sex with non-primary partners among alcoholic inpatients: Findings from the ATRISK study. Health Psychol 1996;15:185-92
101. Boscarino JA, Avins AL, Woods WJ, Lindan CP. Alcohol-related risk factors associated with HIV infection among patients entering alcoholism treatment: Implications for prevention. J Stud Alcohol 1995;56:642-53
102. Graves KL, Leigh BC. Risky sexual behavior and alcohol use among young adults: Results from a national study. Am J Health Prom 1995;10:27-36
103. Leigh BC, Temple MT, Trocki KF. The relationship of alcohol use to sexual activity in a US national sample. Soc Sci Med 1994;39:1527-35
104. Cleary PD, Van Devanter N, Rogers T, et al. Behavior changes after notification of HIV infection. Am J Pub Health 1991;81:1586-90
105. Perry SW, Card CAL, Moffatt M, et al. Self-disclosure of HIV infection to sexual partners after repeated counseling. AIDS Educ Prev 1994;6:403-11
106. Wenger NS, Kusseling FS, Beck K, et al. Sexual behavior of individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:1849-54
107. Wiktor SZ, Biggar RJ, Melbye M, et al. Effect of knowledge of human immunodeficiency virus status on sexual activity among homosexual men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1990;3:62-8
108. Higgins DL, Galavotti C, O'Reilly KR, et al. Evidence for the effects of HIV antibody counseling and testing on risk behavior. JAMA 1991;266:2419-29
109. Lemp GF, Hirozawa AM, Givertz D, et al. Seroprevalence of HIV and risk behaviors among young homosexual and bisexual men. JAMA 1994;272:449-54
110. Otten MW, Zaidi AA, Wroten JE, Witte J, Peterman T. Changes in sexually transmitted disease rates after HIV testing and post-test counseling, Miami, 1988 to 1989. Am J Pub Health 1993;83:529-33
111. Rhodes TJ, Donoghoe MC, Hunter GM, Stimson GV. Continued risk behaviour among HIV positive drug injectors in London: Implications for intervention. Addiction 1993;88:1553-60
112. Singh BK, Koman JJ, Catan V, Souply K, Birkel R, Golaszewski T. Sexual risk behavior among injection drug-using human immunodeficiency virus positive clients. Int J Addict 1993;28:735-47
113. Klien A, Van Landingham M. HIV-infected women and sexual risk-reduction: The relevance of existing models of behavior change. AIDS Educ Prev 1994;6:390-402
114. Kelly JA, Murphy DA, Bahr GR, et al. Factors associated with severity of depression and high-risk sexual behavior among persons diagnosed with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Health Psychol 1993;12:215-19
115. Kennedy CA, Skurnick J, Wan J, et al. Psychological distress, drug and alcohol use as correlates of condom use in HIV-serodiscordant heterosexual couples. AIDS 1993;7:1493-9
116. DesJarlais DC, Friedman SR, Choopanya K, Vanichseni S. International epidemiology of HIV and AIDS among injecting drug users. AIDS 1992;6:1053-68
117. DesJarlais DC, Friedmann P, Hagan H, Friedman SR. The protective effect of AIDS-related behavioral change among injection drug users: A cross-national study. Am J Pub Health 1996;86:1780-5
118. Donoghoe MC, Dolan K, Stimson GV. Changes in injectors HIV risk behaviour and syringe supply in the UK, 1987-1990. International Conference on AIDS, Florence, 1991
119. Higgins SI, Budney AJ, Bickel WK, et al. Achieving cocaine abstinence with a behavioral approach. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:763-9
120. Miller NS, Gold MS, Belkin BM, Klahr AL. Family history and diagnosis of alcohol dependence in cocaine dependence. Psychiatry Res 1989;29:113-21
121. Chatham LR, Rowan-Szak G, Joe GW, Brown BS, Simpson DD. Heavy drinking in a population of methadone-maintained clients. J Stud Alcohol 1995;56:417-22
122. El-Bassel N, Schilling RF, Turnbull JE, Su KH. Correlates of alcohol use among methadone patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1993;17:681-6
123. Kreek MJ. Using methadone effectively: Achieving goals by application of laboratory, clinical, and evaluation research and by development of innovative programs. In: Pickens RW, Leukefeld C, Schuster CR, eds. Improving Drug Abuse Treatment. NIDA Research Monograph No. 106, DHHS Publication no. (ADM) 91-1754. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1991:245-66
124. Stastny D, Potter M. Alcohol abuse by patients undergoing methadone treatment programmes. Br J Addict 1991;86:307-10
125. Grella CE, Anglin MD, Wugalter SE. Cocaine and crack use and HIV risk behaviors among high-risk methadone maintenance clients. Drug Alcohol Depend 1995;37:15-21
126. McBride DC, Inciardi JA, Chitwood DD, et al. Crack use and correlates of use in a national population of street heroin users. J Psychoactive Drugs 1992;24:411-16
127. Darke S, Swift W, Hall W, Ross M. Drug use, HIV risk-taking and psychosocial correlates of benzodiazepine use among methadone maintenance clients. Drug Alcohol Depend 1993;34:67-70
128. Joe GW, Simpson D. HIV risks, gender, and cocaine use among opiate users. Drug Alcohol Depend 1995;37:23-8
129. Ball JC, Lange WR, Myers CP, Friedman SR. Reducing the risk of AIDS through methadone maintenance treatment. J Health Soc Behav 1988;29:214-26
130. Boatler JF, Knight K, Simpson DD. Assessment of an AIDS intervention program during drug abuse treatment. J Subst Abuse Treatment 1994;11:367-72
131. Dole VP. Methadone treatment and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome epidemic. JAMA 1989;262:1681-2
132. Hubbard R, Marsden M, Cavanaugh E, et al. Role of drug abuse treatment in limiting the spread of AIDS. Rev Infect Dis 1988;10:377-84
133. Metzger DS, Woody GE, McLellan AT, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus seroconversion among intravenous drug users in- and out-of-treatment: An 18-month prospective follow-up. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1993;6:1049-56
134. Weber R, Ledergerber B, Opravil M, et al. Progression of HIV infection in misusers of injected drugs who stop injecting or follow a program of maintenance treatment with methadone. BMJ 1990;301:1362-5
135. Carroll K, Zeidonis D, O'Malley S, McCance-Katz E, Gordon L, Rounsaville B. Pharmacologic interventions for alcohol-and cocaine-abusing individuals. Am J Addict 1993;2:77-9
136. Bickel WK, Rizzuto P, Zielony RD, et al. Combined behavioral and pharmacological treatment of alcoholic methadone patients. J Subst Abuse 1989;1:161-71
137. Ewing JA. Detecting alcoholism: The CAGE questionnaire. JAMA 1984;252:1905-7
138. Pokorny AD, Miller BA, Kaplan HB. The brief MAST: A shortened version of the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test. Am J Psychiatry 1972;129:342-5
139. Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Amundsen A, Grant M. Alcohol consumption and related problems among primary health care patients: WHO Collaborative Project on Early Detection of Persons with Harmful Alcohol Consumption - I. Addiction 1993;88:349-62
140. Barry KL, Fleming MF. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and the SMAST-13 predictive validity in a rural primary care sample. Alcohol Alcohol 1993;28:33-42
141. Sanchez-Craig M, Wilkinson DA, Davila R. Empirically-based guidelines for moderate drinking: One-year results from three studies with problem drinkers. Am J Pub Health 1995;85:823-8
142. Miller WR, Brown JM, Simpson TL, et al. What works? A methodological analysis of the alcohol treatment outcome literature. In: Hester RK, ed. Handbook of Alcoholism Treatment Approaches: Effective Alternatives, 2nd Edn. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1995
143. Miller WR, Zweben A, DiClemente CC, Rychtarik RG. Motivational enhancement therapy manual. In: A Clinical Research Guide for Therapists Treating Individuals with Alcohol Abuse and Dependence, Vol. 2. Project Match Monograph Series. Rockville MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 1995
144. Babor TF. Avoiding the horrid and beastly sin of drunkenness: Does dissuasion make a difference? J Consult Clin Psychol 1994;62:1127-40
145. WHO Brief Intervention Study Group. A cross-national trial of brief interventions with heavy drinkers. Am J Pub Health 1996;86:948-55