Education reform in Tatarstan and Bashkortostan: Sovereignty projects in post-Soviet Russia

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 51, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 611-632

  Graney, Katherine E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EDUCATION REFORM; POLITICAL CHANGE; SOVEREIGNTY;

RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

EID: 0032854735     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139998813     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. Michael Barnett, 'Sovereignty, Nationalism, and Regional Order in the Arab States System', in Thomas J. Biersteker & Cynthia Weber (eds), State Sovereignty as Social Construct (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 148-189, at pp. 176-177.
2. Both republics have signed treaty-type agreements with the Russian Federal centre, Tatarstan in February 1994, Bashkortostan in August 1994. The interpretation of the agreements remains different in Moscow and the republics, with the republics asserting that the treaties enshrine their sovereign statehood and Moscow asserting that they enshrine the republics' status as member units of the Russian Federation. On the treaty with Tatarstan, see Elizabeth Teague, 'Russia and Tatarstan Sign Power-sharing Treaty', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 14, 8 April 1994, pp. 19-27. The text of the treaty is available in English in Suverennyi Tatarstan (Moscow, 1997). The text of the agreement with Bashkortostan is available in Bashkortostan: Vybor Puti (Ufa, 1995). The agreement with Bashkortostan is also discussed in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press, 1994, 31, pp. 14-15.
3. Both republics have signed treaty-type agreements with the Russian Federal centre, Tatarstan in February 1994, Bashkortostan in August 1994. The interpretation of the agreements remains different in Moscow and the republics, with the republics asserting that the treaties enshrine their sovereign statehood and Moscow asserting that they enshrine the republics' status as member units of the Russian Federation. On the treaty with Tatarstan, see Elizabeth Teague, 'Russia and Tatarstan Sign Power-sharing Treaty', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 14, 8 April 1994, pp. 19-27. The text of the treaty is available in English in Suverennyi Tatarstan (Moscow, 1997). The text of the agreement with Bashkortostan is available in Bashkortostan: Vybor Puti (Ufa, 1995). The agreement with Bashkortostan is also discussed in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press, 1994, 31, pp. 14-15.
4. Both republics have signed treaty-type agreements with the Russian Federal centre, Tatarstan in February 1994, Bashkortostan in August 1994. The interpretation of the agreements remains different in Moscow and the republics, with the republics asserting that the treaties enshrine their sovereign statehood and Moscow asserting that they enshrine the republics' status as member units of the Russian Federation. On the treaty with Tatarstan, see Elizabeth Teague, 'Russia and Tatarstan Sign Power-sharing Treaty', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 14, 8 April 1994, pp. 19-27. The text of the treaty is available in English in Suverennyi Tatarstan (Moscow, 1997). The text of the agreement with Bashkortostan is available in Bashkortostan: Vybor Puti (Ufa, 1995). The agreement with Bashkortostan is also discussed in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press, 1994, 31, pp. 14-15.
5. Both republics have signed treaty-type agreements with the Russian Federal centre, Tatarstan in February 1994, Bashkortostan in August 1994. The interpretation of the agreements remains different in Moscow and the republics, with the republics asserting that the treaties enshrine their sovereign statehood and Moscow asserting that they enshrine the republics' status as member units of the Russian Federation. On the treaty with Tatarstan, see Elizabeth Teague, 'Russia and Tatarstan Sign Power-sharing Treaty', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 14, 8 April 1994, pp. 19-27. The text of the treaty is available in English in Suverennyi Tatarstan (Moscow, 1997). The text of the agreement with Bashkortostan is available in Bashkortostan: Vybor Puti (Ufa, 1995). The agreement with Bashkortostan is also discussed in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press, 1994, 31, pp. 14-15.
6. The current population and ethnic composition of Tatarstan, taken from the 1989 census of the population of the Soviet Union, reprinted in Vse o Tatarstane: ekonomiko-geograficheskii spravochnik (Kazan', 1994), p. 18, is: Number of People % of Total Population Tatars 1 765 400 48.5 Russians 1 575 400 43.3 Chuvash 134 200 3.7 Ukrainians 32 800 0.9 Mordvins 28 900 0.8 Udmurts 24 800 0.7 Mari 19 400 0.5 Bashkirs 19 100 0.5
7. The current population and ethnic composition of Bashkortostan, using figures from the 1989 census of the population of the Soviet Union, reprinted in Bashkortostan: kratkaya entsiklopediya (Ufa, 1996), p. 26, is: Number of People % of Total Population Bashkirs 863 800 21.9 Russians 1 548 300 39.3 Tatars 1 120 700 28.4 Chuvash 118 500 3.0 Mari 105 800 2.7 Ukrainians 75 000 1.9 Mordvins 31 900 0.8 Udmurts 23 700 0.6
8. Tatarstan adopted its constitution on 7 November 1992, Bashkortostan on 24 December 1993.
9. See note 2.
10. The first presidential election in Tatarstan was held on 12 June 1991, the same day as the first Russian Federation presidential election. Shaimiev ran unopposed for a second term as president in March 1996. Rakhimov was elected as the first president of Bashkortostan in December 1993. The next presidential election in Bashkortostan was held in June 1998 with incumbent President Murtaza Rakhimov being re-elected by a substantial majority in an election marred by charges of the illegal exclusion of would-be challenger candidates, biased local media coverage of the election and other types of electoral fraud.
11. See M. Kh. Farukshin, 'Politicheskaya elita v Tatarstane', Politicheskie issledovaniya, 1994, 5-6, pp. 67-79; and R. R. Gallyamov, 'Natsional'naya politika v sovremennom Bashkortostane', in M. N. Guboglo (ed.), Resursy mobilizovannoi etnichnosli (Moscow and Ufa, 1997), pp. 147-160.
12. See M. Kh. Farukshin, 'Politicheskaya elita v Tatarstane', Politicheskie issledovaniya, 1994, 5-6, pp. 67-79; and R. R. Gallyamov, 'Natsional'naya politika v sovremennom Bashkortostane', in M. N. Guboglo (ed.), Resursy mobilizovannoi etnichnosli (Moscow and Ufa, 1997), pp. 147-160.
13. See C. E. Black (ed.), Rewriting Russian History: Soviet Interpretations of Russia's Past (New York, 1956); and Konstantin F. Shteppa, Russian Historians and the Soviet State (New Brunswick, 1962).
14. See C. E. Black (ed.), Rewriting Russian History: Soviet Interpretations of Russia's Past (New York, 1956); and Konstantin F. Shteppa, Russian Historians and the Soviet State (New Brunswick, 1962).
15. See Yaroslav Bilinsky, 'Education of the non-Russian peoples of the Soviet Union 1917-1967: A review essay', Slavic Review, 37, 3, 1968, pp. 411-437; Walter Connor, The Nationality Question in Marxist-Leninist Theory and Strategy (Princeton, 1984); and Yuri Slezkine, 'The USSR as communal apartment', Slavic Review, 53, 2, 1994, pp. 414-452.
16. See Yaroslav Bilinsky, 'Education of the non-Russian peoples of the Soviet Union 1917-1967: A review essay', Slavic Review, 37, 3, 1968, pp. 411-437; Walter Connor, The Nationality Question in Marxist-Leninist Theory and Strategy (Princeton, 1984); and Yuri Slezkine, 'The USSR as communal apartment', Slavic Review, 53, 2, 1994, pp. 414-452.
17. See Yaroslav Bilinsky, 'Education of the non-Russian peoples of the Soviet Union 1917-1967: A review essay', Slavic Review, 37, 3, 1968, pp. 411-437; Walter Connor, The Nationality Question in Marxist-Leninist Theory and Strategy (Princeton, 1984); and Yuri Slezkine, 'The USSR as communal apartment', Slavic Review, 53, 2, 1994, pp. 414-452.
18. F. Faizullin, 'Bashkortostanu - svoyu Akademiyu Nauk', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 13 March 1991, p. 4.
19. Damir Zh. Valeev, 'Suverenitet obyazyvayet: kakoi dolzhna byt' Akademiya Nauk BSSR?', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 24 July 1991, p. 5.
20. 'Konflikt blizko ot razresheniya', Leninits (Ufa), 24 November 1992, p. 2.
21. However, not all of the ANRB institutes have yet removed their old UNTsRAN placards. The President of the ANRB has dismissed this as a formality, saying that 'There is only one Academy of Sciences in Bashkortostan, the ANRB. The UNTsRAN institutes in Bashkortostan arc fully part of the ANRB'. See Vestnik Akademii Nauk Respubliki Bashkortostan, 1, 2, 1996, p. 3.
22. M. Makhmutov, 'Nuzhno li nam svoya Akademiya?', Sovetskaya Tatariya, 2 January 1991, p. 2.
23. M. Kh. Khasanov, 'Prioritet - interesy respubliki', Sovetskaya Tatariya, 13 February 1993, p. 3.
24. See 'Ukaz Prezidenta Respubliki Bashkortostan o dal'neishem sovershenstvovanii deyatel'nosti Akademii Nauk Respubliki Bashkortostan', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 27 October 1994, p. 1; Murtaza Rakhimov, 'Vystuplenie Prezidenta Respubliki Bashkortostan na zasedanii Kabineta Ministrov', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 29 July 1994, p. 2; and Khasanov, 'Prioritet ...'.
25. See 'Ukaz Prezidenta Respubliki Bashkortostan o dal'neishem sovershenstvovanii deyatel'nosti Akademii Nauk Respubliki Bashkortostan', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 27 October 1994, p. 1; Murtaza Rakhimov, 'Vystuplenie Prezidenta Respubliki Bashkortostan na zasedanii Kabineta Ministrov', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 29 July 1994, p. 2; and Khasanov, 'Prioritet ...'.
26. Author's interview with Radik Abdullovich Zaripov, Head of the Department of National Education and Textbook Provision of the Ministry of Education of Tatarstan, 24 March 1997.
27. See 'Pyatiletnii aksakal', Vestnik: Informatsionnyi byulleten' Ministerstva Obrazovaniya Respubliki Tatarstan, 1996, 1-2, pp. 79-80; Author's interview with M. Kh. Valeev, Director of publishing house Magarif, Kazan', 12 August 1995.
28. See 'Pyatiletnii aksakal', Vestnik: Informatsionnyi byulleten' Ministerstva Obrazovaniya Respubliki Tatarstan, 1996, 1-2, pp. 79-80; Author's interview with M. Kh. Valeev, Director of publishing house Magarif, Kazan', 12 August 1995.
29. 'Otkrytoe pis'mo deyatelei nauki i kul'tury Tatarstana Prezidentu M. Shaimievu', KRIS, 17 May 1996, p. 1.
30. 'Kak nam pisat' svoyu istoriyu?', Idel, 1996, 3-4, pp. 40-45; 'Tatarskaya istoriya budet napisana po-Tatarski', Idel, 1997, 1-2, pp. 24-27, and author's notes from seminar held in Kazan' at the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan, 20 February 1997.
31. 'Kak nam pisat' svoyu istoriyu?', Idel, 1996, 3-4, pp. 40-45; 'Tatarskaya istoriya budet napisana po-Tatarski', Idel, 1997, 1-2, pp. 24-27, and author's notes from seminar held in Kazan' at the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan, 20 February 1997.
32. Ibid.
33. See F. G. Khisamitdinova, 'O usloviyakh natsional'nogo obrazovaniya', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 5 April 1996, p. 3; F. G. Khisamitdinova, 'Shkola: vchera, segodnya, zavtra', Bashkortostan Ukytyÿsyhy, 1996, 10, pp. 6-16.
34. See F. G. Khisamitdinova, 'O usloviyakh natsional'nogo obrazovaniya', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 5 April 1996, p. 3; F. G. Khisamitdinova, 'Shkola: vchera, segodnya, zavtra', Bashkortostan Ukytyÿsyhy, 1996, 10, pp. 6-16.
35. Author's interview with Firdaus Gil'mitdinovna Khisamitdinova, Minister of Education of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Ufa, 17 June 1997.
36. N. A. Mazhitov, 'Bez podderzhki, nauk ne razvit'sya', Izvestiya Bashkortostana, 13 March 1996, p. 3.
37. See Vestnik Akademii Nauk Respubliki Bashkortostan, 1996, 1 and 1996, 3.
38. V. G. Gaifullin, 'Podkhody k natsional'nomu obrazovaniyu', Informatsionno-metodicheskii byulleten' Apparata Prezidenta Respubliki Tatarstan, 1996, 8, pp. 45-47.
39. 'Zakon Respubliki Bashkortostan: Ob obrazovanii', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 10 December 1992, pp. 1-4.
40. See Ministerstvo Obrazovaniya Respubliki Bashkortostan(MORB), Programma razvitiya obrazovaniya Respubliki Bashkortostan na 1993-1998g. (Ufa, 1993); and F. G. Khisamitdinova, 'Obrazovaniya v Bashkortostane: prioritetnye napravleniya', Bashkortostan Ukytyÿsyhy, 1997, 5, pp. 3-7.
41. See Ministerstvo Obrazovaniya Respubliki Bashkortostan(MORB), Programma razvitiya obrazovaniya Respubliki Bashkortostan na 1993-1998g. (Ufa, 1993); and F. G. Khisamitdinova, 'Obrazovaniya v Bashkortostane: prioritetnye napravleniya', Bashkortostan Ukytyÿsyhy, 1997, 5, pp. 3-7.
42. See Ministerstvo Obrazovaniya Respubliki Tatarstan (MORT), 'Uchebnye plany srednikh obshcheobrazovatel'nykh shkol TSSR 1991/1992', Magarif, 1991, 7, pp. 21-25.
43. Zaripov and Khisamitdinova, interviews.
44. MORT, 'Uchebnye plany'.
45. See Zakon o yazykakh narodov Respubliki Tatarstan i Gosudarstvennaya Programma po sokhraneniyu, izucheniyu, i razvitiyu yazykov narodov RT (Kazan', 1996).
46. Language use statistics taken from the 1989 Census of the USSR, Natsional'nyi Sostav Naseleniya SSSR (Moscow, 1991), pp. 38-39.
47. S. Saiganova, 'Na kafedre - tol'ko ob"yatiya', Izvestiya Tatarstana, 24 September 1993, p. 3.
48. Ministerstvo Obrazovaniya Respubliki Tatarstan (MORT), Prikaz 270, issued 24 October 1994, Kazan' (author's copy).
49. See RFE/RL Newsline On-Line News Report, 3, 15, 22 January 1999.
50. Author's interview with R. F. Abdullin, Head of sector on National Education in the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Ufa, 17 June 1997; Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 13 August 1994, p. 1.
51. Ibid.
52. Language use statistics taken from the 1989 Census of the USSR, Natsional'nyi Sostav Naseleniya SSSR (Moscow, 1991), pp. 334-335.
53. According to the 1994 agreements which Tatarstan and Bashkortostan signed with the Russian Federation centre, the republics independently collect all taxes on their territory, turning over only small percentages of the personal income tax, the tax on profits, and value added tax to the federal centre. See Barnett, 'Sovereignty ...'.
54. Steven L. Solnick, 'The breakdown of hierarchies in the Soviet Union and China', World Politics, 48, 1, 1996, pp. 209-238.
55. I. Fakhrutdinov, 'Smogut li nashi universitety vyzhit'?', Respublika Tatarstan, 2 October 1993, p. 3.
56. See Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Representation, 2nd edition (Princeton, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford, 1995); Jurgen Habermas, 'The European Nation-State: Its Achievements and its Limits', in Gopal Balakrishnan (ed.), Mapping the nation (London, 1996), pp. 281-294 (first published in Ratio Jurus, 9, 2, July 1996); and Bernard Yack, 'The Myth of Civic Nationalism', Critical Review, 10, 2, 1996, pp. 193-211.
57. See Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Representation, 2nd edition (Princeton, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford, 1995); Jurgen Habermas, 'The European Nation-State: Its Achievements and its Limits', in Gopal Balakrishnan (ed.), Mapping the nation (London, 1996), pp. 281-294 (first published in Ratio Jurus, 9, 2, July 1996); and Bernard Yack, 'The Myth of Civic Nationalism', Critical Review, 10, 2, 1996, pp. 193-211.
58. See Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Representation, 2nd edition (Princeton, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford, 1995); Jurgen Habermas, 'The European Nation-State: Its Achievements and its Limits', in Gopal Balakrishnan (ed.), Mapping the nation (London, 1996), pp. 281-294 (first published in Ratio Jurus, 9, 2, July 1996); and Bernard Yack, 'The Myth of Civic Nationalism', Critical Review, 10, 2, 1996, pp. 193-211.
59. See Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Representation, 2nd edition (Princeton, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford, 1995); Jurgen Habermas, 'The European Nation-State: Its Achievements and its Limits', in Gopal Balakrishnan (ed.), Mapping the nation (London, 1996), pp. 281-294 (first published in Ratio Jurus, 9, 2, July 1996); and Bernard Yack, 'The Myth of Civic Nationalism', Critical Review, 10, 2, 1996, pp. 193-211.
60. Bilinsky, p. 415.
61. Ministerstvo Obrazovaniya Respubliki Tatarstan (MORT), 'Kontseptsiya razvitiya Tatarskogo obrazovaniya', Panorama, 1991, 8, pp. 15-30.
62. Ibid.
63. Author's interview with F. M. Sultanov, Director of the Centre for the History of National Education of the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, Kazan', 19 March 1997; V. G. Gaifullin, 'Shkola zavtrashnego dnya', Tatarstan, 1995, 7-8, pp. 14-17; and anon, Luchshikh Skhol Kazani (Kazan', 1996).
64. Author's interview with F. M. Sultanov, Director of the Centre for the History of National Education of the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, Kazan', 19 March 1997; V. G. Gaifullin, 'Shkola zavtrashnego dnya', Tatarstan, 1995, 7-8, pp. 14-17; and anon, Luchshikh Skhol Kazani (Kazan', 1996).
65. See MORT, 'Kontseptiya'.
66. Yu. S. Tyunikov, F. F. Kharisov & G. F. Khasanova, Natsional'noe samosoznanie: Sushchnost' i printsipy formirovaniya (Kazan', 1994); and Yu. S. Tyunikov, F. F. Kharisov, G. F. Khasanova & I. Ya. Kuramshin, Strategiya i zadachi razvitiya natsional' nogo gimnazicheskogo obrazovaniya (Kazan', 1995).
67. Yu. S. Tyunikov, F. F. Kharisov & G. F. Khasanova, Natsional'noe samosoznanie: Sushchnost' i printsipy formirovaniya (Kazan', 1994); and Yu. S. Tyunikov, F. F. Kharisov, G. F. Khasanova & I. Ya. Kuramshin, Strategiya i zadachi razvitiya natsional' nogo gimnazicheskogo obrazovaniya (Kazan', 1995).
68. Luchshikh, p. 10.
69. Gaifullin, 'Podkhody'.
70. MORT, 'Kontseptsiya'; Gaifullin, 'Shkola'.
71. MORT, 'Kontseptsiya'; Gaifullin, 'Shkola'.
72. Gaifullin, 'Podkhody'; Zaripov, interview; Kharisov, interview. For example, in the early years of sovereignty (between 1991 and 1993) the number of Mari-language schools in Tatarstan doubled, from four to eight, two new Udmurt-language schools opened, and one new Chuvash language school opened. See Apparat Prezidenta Respubliki Tatarstan, Mnogonatsional' nyi Tatarstan, (Kazan', 1993), p. 45.
73. Gaifullin, 'Podkhody'; Zaripov, interview; Kharisov, interview. For example, in the early years of sovereignty (between 1991 and 1993) the number of Mari-language schools in Tatarstan doubled, from four to eight, two new Udmurt-language schools opened, and one new Chuvash language school opened. See Apparat Prezidenta Respubliki Tatarstan, Mnogonatsional' nyi Tatarstan, (Kazan', 1993), p. 45.
74. F. G. Khisamitdinova, 'Kul't rodnogo yazyka', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 12 April 1996, p. 2.
75. In Bashkortostan, from 1988 to 1996, the number of schools teaching in Bashkir or teaching Bashkir as a subject increased from 957 to 1546. The number of Tatar schools increased almost as rapidly, from 597 to 1127. Other national minorities also experienced growth in the number of 'national' schools during these years - the number of Chuvash, Mari and Udmurt schools increased by 36, 47 and 22 respectively. From 1994 to 1996, however, the growth of Tatar and other national schools slowed considerably (only 90 Tatar schools were opened in this period), while the growth of Bashkir schools remained rapid - 200 new Bashkir schools were opened in the same three years. Figures taken from Ministerstvo Obrazovaniya Respubliki Bashkortostan, Chislo shkol s izucheniem rodnykh yazykov (Ufa, 1996) (author's copy).
76. F. M. Bairamova, 'Na rodnom yazyke', Sovetskaya Bashkiriya, 20 April 1994, p. 3.
77. Kabinet Ministrov Respubliki Bashkortostan, Gosudarstvennaya programma vozrozhdeniya i razvitiya Bashkirskogo Naroda (Ufa, 1996) (author's copy). This controversial document contains a 19-point programme for the revitalisation of Bashkir-language education, including provisions for the preparation of more Bashkir-language teachers for schools at all levels from pre-school to university.
78. It is interesting, however, that in the discussion of 'national minorities' and national education in both republics, Russians are not generally included as a minority group, despite the fact that they make up such significant portions of both republics' populations. This is reminiscent of the situation during the Soviet period, when Russian cultural needs were taken for granted and Russians did not receive special recognition as a separate ethnic group.
79. Khakimov, who is a philosopher by training, is most famous in Tatarstan for his articulation of and ardent publicisation of the 'Tatarstan Model' of peaceful federal negotiations with Russia, and for coordinating Tatarstan's participation in the various 'Hague Initiatives' for peace in the former Soviet Union. See Rafael Khakimov (ed.), The White Book of Tatarstan: The Way to Sovereignty 1990-1993 (Kazan', 1993); also his Approaches to Federalism: The Case of Tatarstan (Kazan', 1993).
80. Khakimov, who is a philosopher by training, is most famous in Tatarstan for his articulation of and ardent publicisation of the 'Tatarstan Model' of peaceful federal negotiations with Russia, and for coordinating Tatarstan's participation in the various 'Hague Initiatives' for peace in the former Soviet Union. See Rafael Khakimov (ed.), The White Book of Tatarstan: The Way to Sovereignty 1990-1993 (Kazan', 1993); also his Approaches to Federalism: The Case of Tatarstan (Kazan', 1993).
81. Author's notes from seminar held at the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan.
82. 'Tatarskaya istoriya budet napisana po-Tatarski', pp. 25-26.
83. B. M. Miftakhov & F. F. Islamov, Istoriya i kul' tura rodnogo kraya (Kazan', 1994), p. 4.
84. Salyam Alishev (ed.), Tatarstan Tarikhynnan Khikeyaler (Kazan', 1993), p. 3.
85. Ibid., pp. 262-265.
86. Ibid.
87. F. G. Khisamitdinova, 'O prepodavanii Konstitutsii Respubliki Bashkortostan v uchrezhdeniyakh obrazovaniya Respubliki', in Konstitutsiya Respubliki Bashkortostan: Teoriya i praktika ee realizatsii (Ufa, 1996), pp. 53-56.
88. See I. G. Akhmanova (ed.), Istoriya Bashkortostana 8-9 (Ufa, 1996), p. 3.
89. F. G. Khisamitdinova, Z. Ya. Sharipova & L. G. Nagaeva, Rodnoi Bashkortostan: Nauchnopopulyarnoe izdanie Kursu 'Istoriya, Literatura, i Kul'tura Bashkortostana' (Ufa, 1992).
90. See Taylor, Multiculturalism and Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship.
91. See Taylor, Multiculturalism and Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship.
92. Author's interview with F. F. Kharisov, Minister of Education of the Republic of Tatarstan, Kazan', 12 August 1997. Also author's interviews with Zaripov, Kharisov and Khisamitdinova. All official publications from the Ministry of Education of Bashkortostan or Tatarstan make reference to the republics' multi-cultural character and the importance of minority education rights in the two republics.
93. The Russian opposition movement in Tatarstan is very small and is fragmented. There is no real 'opposition' newspaper in Kazan', and there is a widespread belief that self-censorship is in operation at official publications. However, extensive field research in Kazan' in 1996-97 did not yield any evidence of organised protest against the new educational developments in Tatarstan.
94. Based on interviews with the heads of national-cultural organisations in Kazan', 1996-97.
95. In Bashkortostan, the Russian opposition group Rus', led by Aleksandr Arinin, a representative from Bashkortostan to the Russian Duma, published a strongly critical opposition newspaper Otechestvo in Bashkortostan from 1993 to 1995, when they were forced to move publication of the paper to nearby Chelyabinsk ablast'. This has severely curtailed the visibility of the Russian opposition movement in Bashkortostan. In the summer of 1998 Arinin's candidacy for the Presidency of Bashkortostan was declared invalid by Bashkortostani election officials, prompting charges of corruption and election tampering in the republic from both Russian and non-Russian citizens.
96. Based on author's interviews in Ufa, Summer 1997.
97. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge, 1997).
98. See Taylor, Multiculturalism and Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship.
99. See Taylor, Multiculturalism and Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship.
100. Peter Hauslohner, 'Gorbachev's Social Contract', Soviet Economy, 3, 1, 1987, pp. 54-89.
101. Michael Mann, 'Nation-states in Europe and other continents: Diversifying and developing, not dying', Daedalus, Summer 1993, pp. 115-140.
102. See Gidon Gottlieb, Nations Against State (New York, 1993), and Michael Keating, Nations Against the State: The New Politics of Nationalism in Quebec, Catalonia, and Scotland (London, 1996).
103. See Gidon Gottlieb, Nations Against State (New York, 1993), and Michael Keating, Nations Against the State: The New Politics of Nationalism in Quebec, Catalonia, and Scotland (London, 1996).
104. See Habermas, The European Nation-State'.
105. Ibid.